English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 49
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 49 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 49 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 49 Analysis
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Excerpt from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:62-64)
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Type of
similarity and justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels, Analogies, Convergences,
Borrowings, and Inversions in Archaeology, Culture, Medical Knowledge, and
Historical Facts: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Anatolia, and the Nile Valley)
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1 And Jacob called unto his sons, and said,
Gather yourselves together, that I may tell you that which shall befall you
in the last days. 2 Gather yourselves together, and hear, ye sons of Jacob;
and hearken unto Israel your father. |
The Etiquette of the Deathbed Monologue. The similarity is manifested
in the employment of a formalized literary device, wherein an aging patriarch
or dignitary officially announces the imminence of the end of his life and
the necessity of conveying final instructions to his successor. |
Egypt In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom) we find: «For old age has
come; feebleness has overtaken me. My eyes are heavy, my arms weak; my legs
fail to follow. The heart is weary; death is near.» (2006LichtheimM:1.229).
In another translation of the «Story of Sinuhe» (20th–18th centuries BCE), it
is stated: «Old age has arrived: weakness has overcome me, my eyes have grown
heavy, my arms are powerless, and my legs no longer obey my weary heart. I
approach my departure, to be led to the City of Eternity» (1978КоростовцевМА:101). In «The Instruction of Ptahhotep» (Old Kingdom) it is stated: «O
Prince, my Lord, the end of life is at hand; old age descendeth [upon me];
feebleness cometh, and childishness is renewed. He [that is old] lieth down
in misery every day. The eyes are small; the ears are deaf. Energy is
diminished, the heart hath no rest.» (1908BattiscombeG:41). Another translation «The Instruction of Ptahhotep» states: «Let this servant be ordered to acquire a staff of old age, that I may tell him the words of those who heard the counsels of the ancestors» (2001КоростовцевМА:39).
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2 Gather yourselves together, and hear, ye sons of Jacob; and hearken unto Israel your father. … 7 Cursed be their anger, for it is fierce; and their wrath, for it is cruel : I will divide them in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel. … 16 Dan shall judge his people, as one of the tribes of Israel. … 24 But his bow abode in strength, and his arms and his hands remained firm ; from the hands of the mighty God of Jacob, from there thou becamest the shepherd, the stone of Israel. … 28 All these are the tribes of Israel, twelve in number; and this is what their father spoke unto them, and wherewith he blessed them; every one according to his proper blessing blessed he them.
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Onomastic authenticity. The identified structural similarity in the use of the theophoric
element «El» confirms that the biblical text belongs to the authentic Near
Eastern naming tradition of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia The theophoric element «El» in personal names is frequently
encountered in the documents of the Mari archives. An example is a letter
(ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). In a
letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim, 'Yakhsib-El, the
Hanaean' is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Yeskit-El, in a letter (ARM
26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). |
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2 Gather yourselves together, and hear, ye
sons of Jacob; and hearken unto Israel your father. 3 Reuben, thou art my
first-born, my might, and the beginning of my strength ; the excellency of
dignity, and the excellency of power (should be thine). 4 Unstable as water,
thou shalt not have the excellence; because thou wentest up to thy father's bed;
then defiledst thou the one who ascended my couch. 5 Simeon and Levi are
brethren; wear pons of violence are their swords. 6 Into their secret shall
my soul not come; unto their assembly ray spirit shall not be united; for in
their anger they slew the man, and in their self-will they lamed the ox. 7
Cursed be their anger, for it is fierce; and their wrath, for it is cruel : I
will divide them in Jacob, and scatter them in Israel. 8 Judah, thou art the
one thy brothers shall praise, thy hand shall be on the neck of thy enemies;
thy father's children shall bow down unto thee. 9 Like a lion's whelp, Judah,
from the prey, my son, thou risest: he stoopeth down, he croucheth as a lion,
and as a lioness, who shall rouse him up? 10 The sceptre shall not depart from
Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet; until Shiloh come, and unto him
shall the gathering of the people be. 11 He bindeth unto the vine his foal,
and to the vine-branch his ass's colt; he washeth his garments in wine, and
in the blood of grapes his clothes; 12 His eyes shall be red from wine, and
his teeth white from milk. 13 Zebulun shall dwell at the margin of the seas;
and he shall be at the haven of ships ; and his border shall be near to
Zidon. 14 Issachar is a strong-boned ass, couching down between the stables.
15 And when he saw the resting-place that it was good, and the land that it
was pleasant, he bent his shoulder to bear, and became a servant unto
tribute. 16 Dan shall judge his people, as one of the tribes of Israel. 17
Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an adder on the path, that biteth the
horse in the heels, so that his rider falleth backward. 18 For thy salvation,
I hope, Lord. 19 Gad, troops will band against him; but he shall wound their
heel. 20 Out of Asher cometh fat bread, and he shall yield royal dainties. 21
Naphtali is (like) a fleet hind; he bringeth pleasant words. 22 Joseph is a
fruitful bough, a fruitful bough by a spring; the branches of which run over
the wall. 23 And they embittered his life, and they shot at him, and they
hated him, the men of the arrows. 24 But his bow abode in strength, and his
arms and his hands remained firm ; from the hands of the mighty God of Jacob,
from there thou becamest the shepherd, the stone of Israel. 25 From the God
of thy father, who will help thee; and from the Almighty, who will bless
thee, with blessings of heaven above, with blessings of the deep that
coucheth beneath, with blessings of the breasts, and of the womb; 26 With the
blessings of thy father that have excelled the blessings of my progenitors
unto the utmost bound of the everlasting hills : these shall be on the head
of Joseph, and on the crown of the head of him that was separated" from
his brothers. 27 Benjamin shall be as a wolf that rendeth : in the morning he
shall devour the prey, and at evening he shall divide the spoil.
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Poetic stylistics. Commonality in the use of artistic devices to formalize legal or
mythological declarations.
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Egypt «Mythology is sometimes more
rationalistic and sometimes less so, but in all cases, besides the rational,
it also contains a poetic element. In Egyptian mythology, however, the poetic
element is dominant» (2004РакИВ:12).
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3 Reuben, thou art my first-born, my might,
and the beginning of my strength ; the excellency of dignity, and the
excellency of power (should be thine). |
Social Prerogative of Primogeniture. A similarity is observed in
the strict adherence to the hierarchy of birth order as a fundamental
principle for the distribution of social status and inheritance rights. |
Mesopotamia According to the «Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE): «§ 170. If a
man's wife bear him children and his maid-servant bear him children, and the
father during his life time say to the children which the maid-servant bore
him : «My children», and reckon them with the children of his wife, after the
father dies the children of the wife and the children of the maid-servant
shall divide the goods of the father's house equally. The child of the wife
shall have the right of choice at the division.» (1920HandcockPSP:28). The Nuzi archive contained a
contract (H67), according to which «As for (the concubine's) offspring, Gilimninu
shall [not] send (them) away. Any sons that out of the womb of Gilimninu [to
She]nnima may be bor[n, all the] lands, buildings, [whatever their
description,] to (these) sons are given.» 1928SpeiserEA:32).
Cuneiform tablets from Nuzi date back to the mid-second millennium BCE
(1976SelmanMJ:114).
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3 Reuben, thou art my first-born, my might,
and the beginning of my strength ; the excellency of dignity, and the
excellency of power (should be thine). |
Social Prerogative of Primogeniture. A similarity is observed in
the strict adherence to the hierarchy of birth order as a fundamental
principle for the distribution of social status and inheritance rights. |
Egypt Pyramid of Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE) Recitation
№ 519 «The
Firstborn Thing’s scent is on this Pepi Neferkare; the benben is in Sokar’s
enclosure, the foreleg is in Anubis’s house.» (2007AllenJP:292). In recitation No. 641
(1814a-b) of the «Pyramid Texts», dating from 2350–2175 BCE, it is stated:
«thou art the eldest son of Geb, his first-born, his heir»
(1952MercerSAB:445). Plutarch (1st–2nd century)
recounted the legend that Horus, «whom Isis brought forth as no sensible
image of that world which is conceptual», was brought to trial by Seth «on a
charge of illegitimacy, as not being pure and unalloyed like his father»
(1996Плутарх:54).
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6 Into their secret shall my soul not come;
unto their assembly ray spirit shall not be united; for in their anger they
slew the man, and in their self-will they lamed the ox. |
Anthropological dualism. There is a similarity in the
reflection of a shared concept of the «soul» as a distinct vital principle.
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Egypt Pyramid of Pepi I (6th
Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE) Recitation № 318 «Hey, Sun! Now, that which you said, Sun — “Oh
for a son,” so you said, Sun, “ba, in control, esteemed, with active arms (and
wide stride” — here is Pepi, Sun. Pepi is your son: Pepi is ba, Pepi is
esteemed, Pepi is in control, Pepi’s arms are active), this Pepi’s stride is
wide.»
(2007AllenJP:123). Recitation № 319 «Ho, Pepi! You shall become ba as the bas of
Heliopolis, you shall become ba as the bas of Nekhen, you shall become ba as
the bas of Pe, you shall become ba as the living star at the fore of his
brothers.» (2007AllenJP:124). An important concept: «Ba = «divine power»,
«soul» (2006LichtheimM:1.245). Coffin Texts (2134-2040 BCE) Spell № 77
«I am this soul of Shu which is in the Hamel of the fiery blast which Atum
kindled with his own hand.» (1973FaulknerRO:80). We also read in the Coffin Texts, Spell
№ 96 «I have crossed the west of the sky, I have traversed the east of the
sky, it is Re who made my soul for me, and it is I who made a soul for Re.» (1973FaulknerRO:95).
In «The Dispute between a
Man and His Ba» (12th Dynasty),
a similar concept is employed in the phrase: «My ba shall not go, It
shall attend to me in this!» (2006LichtheimM:1.164). «Three Tales of Wonder»
(Papyrus Westcar, Hyksos period) we read: «May your ba know the way that
leads to the portal that conceals the dead. Thus greetings to a prince!»
(2006LichtheimM:1.218). In «The
Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «My ba was gone, my
limbs trembled; my heart was not in my body, I did not know life from death.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.231).
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6 Into their secret shall my soul not come;
unto their assembly ray spirit shall not be united; for in their anger they
slew the man, and in their self-will they lamed the ox. |
Zootechnological Continuity and
Knowledge of Animal Anatomy. The
recording of mastery in specialized veterinary methods, the processing of
animal carcasses, as well as knowledge regarding the anatomy of the flexible
elements of the musculoskeletal system in both humans and animals. |
Egypt In the Hebrew original, the verse employs a term signifying «to cut,
to hamstring» (sefaria.org). In the «Pyramid Texts», Utterance № 688 concerns the construction of a
ladder to heaven to the god Hapi. The inscription was placed on a tomb wall
between 2350–2175 BCE. A fragment (2080a-c) states: «Its rungs are hewn by
Šśȝ; the ropes which are on it are made solid by means of sinews of Gȝśw.ti,
the bull of heaven;» (1952MercerSAB:499-500). The text explicitly implies
tendons, as ligaments are too small to serve as raw material for rope
production. In Spell № 404 from the corpus of the «Coffin Texts» (ca. 2134–2040
BCE), animal tendons are mentioned: «Someone has made
you from the skin of the Mnevis bull and the sinews of the Ombite.»
(1977FaulknerRO:48). An analogous phrase is contained in Spell № 405
(1977FaulknerRO:55). In Spell № 850 of the «Coffin Texts», there are words concerning the
surgical treatment of injuries to either tendons or ligaments of man: «Nut
has come so that she may join your bones together, knit up your sinews, make
your members firm, take away your corruption and take hold of your hand, so
that you may live in your name of 'Living One'. May you live for ever!»
(1978FaulknerRO:34). In this case, ligaments are more likely, as it is these
structures that directly connect bons. In Case № 7 of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus», a ligament of the lower jaw
is described (lig. sphenomandibulare or lig. stylomandibulare), or possibly a
muscle (m. masseter or m. temporalis), while in Case № 30, injury to the
ligaments between the cervical vertebrae is implied (1930BreastedJH:175; sae.saw-leipzig.de). Spell № 473 from the corpus of «Coffin Texts» (c. 2134–2040 BCE) mentions the tendons of the god Atum: «Because I know the name of its ropes; they are the sinews of Atum.» (1977FaulknerRO:108). Spell № 474 from the corpus of «Coffin Texts» «I know the name of the
ropes which pull it up; they are the sinews of Atum. <…> «Because I
know the names of the ropes'which are on the reel; they are the sinews of the
Lord of the plebs.» (1977FaulknerRO:112-113). Spell № 479 from the corpus of «Coffin Texts» the tendons or ligaments
of Horus—the mythical counterpart of man—are mentioned: «Its lines, its ropes
and its cords are the line of Atum and the sinews of Horus who is on his
papyrus-plan't.» (1977FaulknerRO:121). In Spell № 397 from the «Coffin Texts» corpus, the ligaments or tendons of a god, presumably Seth, are discussed: «They are the sinews of him of whom all these are afraid.» (1977FaulknerRO:25).
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6 Into their secret shall my soul not come;
unto their assembly ray spirit shall not be united; for in their anger they
slew the man, and in their self-will they lamed the ox. |
Zootechnological Continuity. Recording the mastery of specialized veterinary techniques
(castration) necessary for raising oxen as the primary draft and meat
resource.
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Mesopotamia Oxen are mentioned in the «Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE): «§ 224 If a veterinary surgeon operate on an ox or an ass for a severe wound and save its life, the owner of the ox or ass shall give to the physician, as his fee, one-sixth of a shekel of silver. § 225 If he operate on an ox or an ass for a severe wound and cause its death, he shall give to the owner of the ox or ass one-fourth its value.» (1920HandcockPSP:35; hist.msu.ru).
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6 Into their secret shall my soul not come;
unto their assembly ray spirit shall not be united; for in their anger they
slew the man, and in their self-will they lamed the ox. |
Zootechnological Continuity. Recording the mastery of specialized veterinary techniques
(castration) necessary for raising oxen as the primary draft and meat
resource. |
Egypt «Pyramid Texts» (2350-2175 BCE) Utterance № 437 (807c): «thy thousand of oxen, thy thousand of all things which
thou eatest, on which thy heart is set» (1952MercerSAB:237). Compare: «Pyramid Texts» (2350-2175 BCE) Utterance № 438 (809c) «thy father is
the great wild bull, thy mother is the young cow (lit. girl, or damsel).»
(1952MercerSAB:237). In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «The sky is
above you as you lie in the hearse, oxen drawing you, musicians going before
you.» (2006LichtheimM:1.229). In the «Three Tales of Wonder» (Papyrus Westcar, Hyksos period) we
read: «His majesty had an ox brought to him, and its head was cut off. Djedi
said his say of magic, and the ox stood up.» (2006LichtheimM:1.219).
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8 Judah, thou art the one thy brothers shall
praise, thy hand shall be on the neck of thy enemies; thy father's children
shall bow down unto thee. 9 Like a lion's whelp, Judah, from the prey, my
son, thou risest: he stoopeth down, he croucheth as a lion, and as a lioness,
who shall rouse him up? 10 The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a
lawgiver from between his feet; until Shiloh come, and unto him shall the
gathering of the people be. 11 He bindeth unto the vine his foal, and to the
vine-branch his ass's colt; he washeth his garments in wine, and in the blood
of grapes his clothes; 12 His eyes shall be red from wine, and his teeth
white from milk. See note!
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Royal Symbolism and the
Sacred Landscape. The similarity lies in the
use of an identical set of symbols of power (scepter, lion) to legitimize the
heir's high status in both the earthly and sacred realms. |
Egypt In the «Pyramid Texts», Utterance № 688, concerning the construction
of a stairway to heaven, mentions both a scepter and a lion. The inscription
was applied to the tomb wall between 2350–2175 BCE. Its fragments 2081a–2082b
and 2084a–2086c state: «Cause ye the ka of N. to ascend to the god; lead ye
him to the two lions; cause him to ascend to Atum. <...> The
inhabitants of the Dȝ.t have counted their bodies; they opened their ears, to
the voice of N., when he descends among them.
"Heavy-is-his-sceptre" has said to them that N. is one of them. The
might of N. is among them like "Great mighty one," who will lead to
the Great West. The dignity of N. is great in the house of the two lions, for
the wrong which appertains to N. is driven off by him who drives off evil
(’Idr-isf.t) from before Mḫnti-’irti in Letopolis.» (1952MercerSAB:499-501). In Spell № 1 from the corpus of the «Coffin Texts» (ca. 2134–2040 BCE)
it is said: «You are the Lion, you are the Double Lion, you are Horus,
Protector of his fatherа», and in Spell №
248 it is stated: «my strength is the strength of the Lion;» (1973FaulknerRO:1,193).
In Spell № 1099 from the corpus of the Coffin Texts, the following invocation
is present: «Double Lion, I am he who prophesies to you.»
(1978FaulknerRO:154). In «The Instruction of Khety (son of Duauf) to his son Pepi» (Middle
Kingdom), the fate of a peasant is described: «He is as terrified as if he
were in the claws of a lion» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:244).
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9 Like a lion's whelp, Judah, from the prey,
my son, thou risest: he stoopeth down, he croucheth as a lion, and as a
lioness, who shall rouse him up?
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Borrowing of the word «lion»
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The broad distribution of all its forms points to the antiquity of the
word within Asian culture (2021NoonanBJ:139). |
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11 He bindeth unto the vine his foal, and to
the vine-branch his ass's colt; he washeth his garments in wine, and in the
blood of grapes his clothes; … 14 Issachar is a
strong-boned ass, couching down between the stables. |
Zooarchaeological
Verification. The
biblical mention of donkeys reveals a direct correspondence with
archaeological findings confirming the presence and domestication of these
animals in Old Kingdom Egypt. |
Egypt A burial dating back to the early First Dynasty (c. 3000 BC) contains the «earliest direct evidence of use of donkeys for transport rather than for meat. They also provide the earliest secure, non-size-based evidence for domestic donkeys.» (2008RosselS_O'ConnorD). In the mastaba at Tarkhan (First Dynasty, ca. 2850 BC) a grave was found containing the skeletons of three donkeys «these were the favourite animals buried with the master, much as the household were buried with the kings of this age.» (1914PetrieWMF). The most likely ancestors of the domestic donkey are the African wild asses (2004Beja-PereiraA_LuikartG).
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11 He bindeth unto the vine his foal, and to
the vine-branch his ass's colt; he washeth his garments in wine, and in the
blood of grapes his clothes; 12 His eyes shall be red from wine, and his
teeth white from milk.
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Lexical Borrowing of the
Word «wine». |
This ancient cultural word must
have originated either from the Eastern Mediterranean or from the Southern
Caucasus (2021NoonanBJ:112-113). |
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11 He bindeth unto the vine his foal, and to
the vine-branch his ass's colt; he washeth his garments in wine, and in the
blood of grapes his clothes; 12 His eyes shall be red from wine, and his
teeth white from milk. |
Viticultural Metaphor of
Prosperity. The similarity lies in the
imagery of the vineyard, which serves as a universal marker of socio-economic
status and sacral well-being, where the abundance of wine or the preservation
of the vine symbolizes the highest degree of vitality and divine favor. |
Egypt Pyramid of Pepi I (6th Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE) Recitation
№ 311: «The vine will [recognize] you and the sidder will turn his head to
you—as an offering that Anubis has made exist for you.» (2007AllenJP:121). «The Autobiography of Weni» (6th Dynasty): «This army returned in
safety, It had cut down its figs, its vines, This army returned in safety, It
had thrown fire in all its [mansions].» (2006LichtheimM:1.18). In «The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant» (Middle Kingdom): there are the
words: «Oh for a moment of destruction, havoc in your vineyard, loss among
your birds, damage to your water birds! <…> The vintner of evil waters his plot with
crimes, Until his plot sprouts falsehood, His estate flows with crimes!»
(2006LichtheimM:1.174,179). In «The Instruction of Khety, son of Duauf, to his son Pepi» (Middle
Kingdom), it is said of the gardener's labor: «In the morning he waters the
vegetables, in the evening — the grapevines» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:243-244).
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15 And when he saw the resting-place that it
was good, and the land that it was pleasant, he bent his shoulder to bear,
and became a servant unto tribute.
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Borrowing of the word «tribute». |
The word is likely of Hurrian origin (2021NoonanBJ:147) |
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17 Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an
adder on the path, that biteth the horse in the heels, so that his rider
falleth backward. |
Zooarchaeological and chronological parallelism. A shared period of the spread of horses, chariots, and wagons in the
Egypt. |
Egypt A horse skeleton excavated in Buhen, in the southern Nile Valley, is
dated approximately to 2055–1650 BCE (2014TatomirR). The document known as
«Be a Scribe» (Middle Kingdom?) implies the presence of horses: «The poor man
is turned into a driver - and the stable manager supervises him» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:248). In the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (attributed by V.V. Struve to the
Second Intermediate Period), we find an indirect reference to horses:
«Behold, he who had no team now possesses a herd» (1978КоростовцевМА:236).
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17 Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an
adder on the path, that biteth the horse in the heels, so that his rider
falleth backward. |
Zooarchaeological and chronological parallelism. A shared period of the spread of horses, chariots, and wagons in the
Near East. |
Mesopotamia, Anatolia Wagons and horses are depicted on the Sumerian «Standard of Ur»,
created during the Early Dynastic period, which dominated in 2550–2400 BCE
(2003AruzJ_WallenfelsR). In letter ARM 26/1 47 (Royal Archive of Mari), it is reported that
Askudum divided the cattle and horses collected from the Canaanites into
herds (1988CharpinD_LafontB:190-199, archibab.fr). In letter ARM 26/2 533,
also from the Royal Archive of Mari, the author writes about ongoing
negotiations for the supply of white Anatolian horses
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:526-527, archibab.fr). The Mesopotamian archive
of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). According to the «Hittite Laws» (17th–12th centuries BCE): «§ 71 If
anyone finds a (stray) ox, horse, mule (or) donkey, he shall drive it to the
king’s gate.» (1997HoffnerJrHA:80).
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17 Dan shall be a serpent by the way, an
adder on the path, that biteth the horse in the heels, so that his rider
falleth backward.
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The Borrowing of the Term «Horse». |
The word most likely originates from the region of the horse's initial
domestication rather than from Indo-European languages (2021NoonanBJ:160). |
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22 Joseph is a
fruitful bough, a fruitful bough by a spring; the branches of which run over
the wall. 23 And they embittered his life, and they shot at him, and they
hated him, the men of the arrows. 24 But his bow abode in strength, and his
arms and his hands remained firm ; from the hands of the mighty God of Jacob,
from there thou becamest the shepherd, the stone of Israel. 25 From the God
of thy father, who will help thee; and from the Almighty, who will bless
thee, with blessings of heaven above, with blessings of the deep that
coucheth beneath, with blessings of the breasts, and of the womb; 26 With the
blessings of thy father that have excelled the blessings of my progenitors
unto the utmost bound of the everlasting hills : these shall be on the head
of Joseph, and on the crown of the head of him that was separated from his
brothers.
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Sacral Legitimation of the Heir. There is a notable similarity in the application of the metaphor of
the triumphant successor (Joseph/Horus), who, through divine support,
overcomes the hostility of his environment to attain the status of a
legitimate protector and head of the kin.
|
Egypt The inheritance of Joseph
from his father is prefigured, similar to that of Horus from Osiris despite
the claims of Seth. In Spell №. 5 from the collection of «Coffin Texts» (ca.
2134–2040 BCE), it is explicitly stated: «Horus, the successor of Osiris»
(1973FaulknerRO:3). In Spell № 42–43 of the «Coffin Texts», there is an
unambiguous allusion to the inheritance of Osiris's throne: «Thoth having
given to him the thrones of Geb, while Horus is heir. Horus is concerned with
the business of the vindication of his father N» (1973FaulknerRO:34). The hypostasis of «Horus the
Child» is associated «with the cult of Osiris. Usually, he is identified with
the heir to the throne or with the reigning pharaoh» (2004РакИВ:87). The analogy between Joseph
and Horus? The stela of King Nebtawyre Mentuhotep IV (Eleventh Dynasty):
«Beneficent god, lord of joy, Great of fear, rich in love, Heir of Horus in
his Two Lands, Nursling of divine Isis,» (2006LichtheimM:1.114). In the myth «The Contendings
of Horus and Seth», the goddess Neith recommends to the Ennead of the great
gods: «Give the office of Osiris to his son Horus, and do not commit these
great injustices... and may you place Horus in the seat of his father,
Osiris» (1940МатьеМВ:86). Thus, Horus
inherited the virtual throne of Osiris on earth. In Utterance № 641 (1814a-b)
of the «Pyramid Texts», dated to 2350–2175 BCE, it is stated: «Osiris N.,
thou art the eldest son of Geb, his primogeniture, his heir.» (1952MercerSAB:445). In Spell № 837 from the
corpus of the «Coffin Texts» (approx. 2134–2040 BCE), the murder of Osiris by
Seth and his litigation with Geb over the inheritance are recounted
(1978FaulknerRO:24). In the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), we read regarding
succession: «My eldest son became the head of my tribe, and all my property
passed into his hands: my people, all my herds, all my fruits, and all my
fruit trees. Then the humble servant set out on the return journey, heading
south» (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ:24). In another version of the translation of «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom) we find: «I was allowed to spend one more day in Yaa, handing over my possessions to my children, my eldest son taking charge of my tribe; all my possessions became his-my serfs, my herds, my fruit, my fruit trees. This servant departed southward.» (2006LichtheimM:1.231).
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24
But his bow abode in strength, and his arms and his hands remained firm ;
from the hands of the mighty God of Jacob, from there thou becamest the
shepherd, the stone of Israel. |
The Metaphor of
Divine Shepherding. The similarity is evident in
the use of the «shepherd» imagery as a supreme epithet for a deity or their
chosen representative, tasked with maintaining the integrity and protection
of the entrusted people («the flock»). |
Egypt In Utterance № 578 (1533a-b)
of the «Pyramid Texts», dated to 2350-2175 BCE, it is implied that Osiris was
a shepherd: «Thou dost not know them; thou art astonished at them; thou hast
laid them in thine arms like herdsmen of thy calves.» (1952MercerSAB:389). In Spell № 728 of the
«Coffin Texts» corpus (c. 2134–2040 BCE), the receipt of a staff by Osiris is
mentioned, and further down he is referred to as the Great Shepherd
(1977FaulknerRO:277,278). In «The Admonitions of
Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we find: «See, noblewomen go hungry, And serfs are
sated with what was made for them. See, all the ranks, they are not in their
place, Like a herd that roams without a herdsman. <…> Lo, why does he
seek to fashion (men), when the timid is not distinguished from the violent ?
If he would bring coolness upon the heat, one would say: "He is the
herdsman of all; there is no evil in his heart. His herds are few, but he
spends the day herding them."» (2006LichtheimM:1.158-159). In another rendition of the
«Admonitions of Ipuwer» (according to V.V. Struve — Second Intermediate
Period), Ra is described as the shepherd of men: «It is said: he is the
shepherd of all, and there is no evil in his heart. When his flock is
scattered, he spends his days gathering it, even if the hearts of his
creatures be fevered» (1978КоростовцевМА:237-238). Pyramid of Pepi I (6th Dynasty,
ca. 2289–2255 BCE) Recitation № 371 «Meryre is a bullherd to whom belongs
four meals and seven meals, for [four] are for the sky and three are for the
earth, for three are for [the earth] and four are for the sky.»
(2007AllenJP:142).
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25
From the God of thy father, who will help thee; and from the Almighty, who
will bless thee, with blessings of heaven above, with blessings of the deep
that coucheth beneath, with blessings of the breasts, and of the womb;
|
Cosmogonic
Verticality of Blessing. The similarity lies in the utilization of an identical spatial model
of the universe, wherein divine authority and grace are distributed
vertically — from the «heavens above» to the «abyss that lies beneath». |
Egypt Pyramid Texts (2350-2175
BCE) Utterance № 222 (207b) «thou judgest distress in the underworld, thou
standest above the places of the abyss» (1952MercerSAB:104). «Coffin Texts» (2134-2040
BCE) Spell № 76 «The phoenix of Re was that whereby Atum came into being in
chaos, in the Abyss, in darkness and in gloom. <…> I made light of the
darkness for it, and it found me as an immortal. It was I who again begot the
Chaos-gods in chaos, in the Abyss, in darkness and in gloom.» (1973FaulknerRO:78).
In Spell № 72, also from the corpus of the «Coffin
Texts», mentions the staff of Osiris: «The gods come to you bowing, the
Morning Star rejoices at you, he brings to you! what is in the Abyss; you
strike with the sceptre and with the staff. You cross the lake, you traverse
the Waterway of the Two Sheep. Do not say: It is who say this. It is Geb and
Osiris who say this to you.» (1973FaulknerRO:67).
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25
From the God of thy father, who will help thee; and from the Almighty, who
will bless thee, with blessings of heaven above, with blessings of the deep
that coucheth beneath, with blessings of the breasts, and of the womb; |
Semantic Parallel. Both texts employ an identical imagery of the «abyss». |
Mesopotamia
In the Sumerian poem («Myth of Enki and Ninmah») we read: Enki
says to his mother, Nammu, the primeval sea: «O my mother, the creature whose
name you uttered, it exists, Bind upon it the image (?) of the gods; Mix the
heart of the clay that is over the abyss, The good and princely fashioners
will thicken the clay, You, do you bring the limbs into existence;»
(1981KramerS:106107). The tablet with the myth of Enki and Ninmah is dated to the Old
Babylonian period. (1969BenitoCA:1).
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26
With the blessings of thy father that have excelled the blessings of my
progenitors unto the utmost bound of the everlasting hills : these shall be
on the head of Joseph, and on the crown of the head of him that was separated
from his brothers. |
The Formula of
Spatial Boundlessness The similarity is identified in the use of a stable literary cliché of
«bounds» (of lands or hills) to describe the absolute scale of power,
influence, or blessing extending to the extreme points of the inhabited
world. |
Egypt In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle
Kingdom), it is stated: «Your Majesty is
the conquering Horus; your arms vanquish all lands. May then your Majesty
command to have brought to you the prince of Meki from Qedem, the mountain
chiefs from Keshu, and the prince of Menus from the lands of the Fenkhu.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.230). В другом переводе «Рассказа Синухета» содержится
фраза: «рука твоя простирается до пределов всех земель» (1915ТураевБА:35). In autobiographies of
Harkhuf (6th Dynasty) we find the words: «The Royal Seal-bearer, Sole
Companion, Lector-priest, Chief of scouts, who brings the produce of all
foreign lands to his lord, who brings gifts to the Royal Ornament,2 Governor
of all mountainlands belonging to the southern region, who casts the dread of
Horus into the foreign lands» (2006LichtheimM:1.25).
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27
Benjamin shall be as a wolf that rendeth : in the morning he shall devour the
prey, and at evening he shall divide the spoil. |
Ethno-Onomastic Authenticity The similarity is manifested in the use of the name «Benjamin»
(Binyamin) as a documented anthroponym and ethnonym within the Near East
during the Middle Bronze Age. |
Mesopotamia The correspondence from the
Mari archives mentions the Benjaminite tribes, their kings, and princes, who
lived in proximity to the Bedouins of Canaan. Specifically, the author of a
letter (ARM 26/1 282) reminds Zimri-Lim: «Two Canaanites must be brought alive
to the border and mutilated there. They must go alive to the Benjaminites and
tell them that my Lord has captured the city of Mishlan by force...»
(1988CharpinD:582-583, archibab.fr). A certain Ishi-Addu, in a letter (ARM 26/1 121),
conveys the words of oracles: «Go to Dur-Yahdun-Lim and verify the prophecies
concerning the inhabitants of Qatna and the Zalmakkum, relating to the
Benjaminites. If, when Zimri-Lim and his troops set out on a campaign... the
Benjaminites will surely form a solid block with their forces and [...] and
besiege Dur-Yahdun-Lim» (1988CharpinD:287-288, archibab.fr). The Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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28 All these are the tribes of Israel, twelve
in number; and this is what their father spoke unto them, and wherewith he
blessed them; every one according to his proper blessing blessed he them. |
Numerological canon. The similarity in the use of the number 12 serves as a tool for
organizing chaos, transforming biological offspring or body fragments into a
complete, sacred structure.
|
Egypt According to the legend, «The
search for the parts of Osiris’s dismembered body continued for twelve days»
(2004РакИВ:81). In particular, the «Papyrus Jumilhac» (1st century BCE) reports
twelve days of searching for the body parts of Osiris; the duration of the
following is also associated with this number: «the twelve days of the
plowing festival, celebrated throughout the country: these are the days when
the members of the god, found in the cities and nomes, were gathered
together» (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ:60).
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29 And he charged them and said unto them, I
am to be gathered unto my people; bury me near my fathers in the cave that is
in the field of Ephron the Hittite, 30 In the cave that is in the field of
Machpelah, which is before Mamre, in the land of Canaan, which field Abraham
bought of Ephron the Hittite, for a possession as a burying-place, |
Sacral Topos of Repatriation. A similarity is observed in the assertion of an individual's
imperative right to burial in their native land, which is regarded as the
supreme good and a necessary condition for completing the life cycle. |
Egypt In the story «The Tale of
the Shipwrecked Sailor» (Middle Kingdom), we read: «You will reach home in
two months. You will embrace your children. You will flourish at home, you
will be buried.» (2006LichtheimM:1.213-214). In another translation of the
«Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor», the serpent says: «You shall set out on the
return journey with them, and you shall meet death [not in a distant foreign
land, but] in your native city...» (2007РакИ:190). «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle
Kingdom): «Whichever god decreed this flight, have mercy, bring me home !
Surely you will let me see the place in which my heart dwells! What is more
important than that my corpse be buried in the land in which I was born! Come
to my aid!» (2006LichtheimM:1.228). In another rendition of the
«Story of Sinuhe», the hero addresses the Pharaoh: «Grant that my body be
buried in the land in which I was born! What could be greater or more
desirable than this!» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:34). In the «Myth of the Eye of
the Sun» («The Flight of Hathor to Nubia», «Leiden Papyrus», 2nd-3rd
centuries AD), the god Thoth exhorts Hathor-Tefnut: «Even a crocodile, when
it grows old, leaves a foreign land and comes to die in its own pool» (2007РакИ:69).
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29 And he charged them and said unto them, I
am to be gathered unto my people; bury me near my fathers in the cave that is
in the field of Ephron the Hittite, 30 In the cave that is in the field of
Machpelah, which is before Mamre, in the land of Canaan, which field Abraham
bought of Ephron the Hittite, for a possession as a burying-place, 31 (There
they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife; there they buried Isaac and Rebekah
his wife; and there I buried Leah,) 32 Purchasing the field and the cave that
is therein from the children of Heth. |
Legal Legitimation of the Necropolis. The similarity is manifested in the emphasized confirmation of private
property rights over the burial site, ensuring the inviolability of the tomb
and the eternal repose of the deceased. |
Egypt In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «The dance of
the mrow-dancers is done at the door of your tomb; the offering-list is read
to you; sacrifice is made before your offering-stone. Your tomb-pillars, made
of white stone, are among (those of) the royal children.»
(2006LichtheimM:1:229-230); «A stone pyramid was built for me in the midst of
the pyramids. The masons who build tombs constructed it. A master draughtsman
designed in it. A master sculptor carved in it. The overseers of construction
in the necropolis busied themselves with it. All the equipment that is placed
in a tomb-shaft was supplied. Mortuary priests were given me. A funerary
domain was made for me.» (2006LichtheimM:1:233); It has been observed that in the texts on the walls of Egyptian tombs,
«nobles constantly emphasize that it is their legal property, and that they
have not violated the rights of others» (1920ТураевБА:49).
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29 And he charged them and said unto them, I
am to be gathered unto my people; bury me near my fathers in the cave that is
in the field of Ephron the Hittite, 30 In the cave that is in the field of
Machpelah, which is before Mamre, in the land of Canaan, which field Abraham
bought of Ephron the Hittite, for a possession as a burying-place, … 32
Purchasing the field and the cave that is therein from the children of Heth.
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Ethnogenetic
Verification. Fixation of
the presence of Indo-European groups (Hittites) in the Levant as a
consequence of a migratory wave element.
|
Levant n 1800 BCE, a
case of the presence of a Lycian [Hittite] from Western Asia Minor was recorded
in Byblos, Phoenicia (1966KitchenKA).
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30 In the cave that is in the field of
Machpelah, which is before Mamre, in the land of Canaan, which field Abraham
bought of Ephron the Hittite, for a possession as a burying-place,
|
Ethnopolitical Isomorphism. The presence of the term «Canaan» is characteristic of diplomatic
correspondence and legal archives of the 18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to
Askudum (Mari archive, ARM 26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…>
awaiting the arrival of the Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In a letter
(ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim,
«Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). The
Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). «It is thus evident that in mid-18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same arca where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398). «The earliest occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the
Old Testament is in the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the
middle of the fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu, which is attested by the
documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is supposed to be a Hurrian
word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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33 And when Jacob had made an end of
commanding his sons, he gathered up his feet into the bed; and he departed
this life, and was gathered unto his people.
|
The Formula of the
Testator’s Competence. The similarity is manifested in the use of a stable idiom, specifically one that links the physical posture of the individual (their legs) with the transition from the active exercise of will «on one's feet» to the completion of the earthly journey and death. |
Egypt It has been noted that in the texts of testamentary dispositions on
tomb walls, certain dignitaries specified that prior to their death they made
their «arrangements while alive,
standing on both legs and in their right mind» (1920ТураевБА:50). |
Glossa «Shiloh»
Shiloh – a place N of Bethel inside the land of Canaan where the Israelites convened sacred assemblies in the days before Solomon established the Jerusalem temple as the major center of Yahwistic worship. Located in the heart of the Ephraimite hills, Shiloh (Khirbet Seilun, M.R. 177162) occupied a midpoint between the important centers of Bethel and Shechem. Recent excavations have disclosed that the Shilonite cult had extensive architectural fixtures. According to Finkelstein (1985), the floruit of the site and of its cultic component can be placed in the first half of the 11th century. Shiloh sustained a destruction in the mid–11th century, which scholars reasonably and unanimously ascribe to the aftermath of the Philistine victory (1992FreedmanDN).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 49
The
Etiquette of the Deathbed Monologue
The
identified textual and thematic similarities indicate the utilization of a
stable Near Eastern literary canon of the «deathbed instruction,»
characteristic of monuments from the Egyptian Old and Middle Kingdoms (ca.
25th–18th centuries BCE). A comparison of the biblical text with the
Instruction of Ptahhotep and the Story of Sinuhe reveals an identical
linguistic formula: the aging patriarch legitimizes the transfer of authority
by describing physical frailty and summoning successors to hear the «counsels
of the ancestors.» This parallel allows the structure of Genesis 49 to be
viewed within the context of official courtly etiquette of the second
millennium BCE.
Onomastic
Authenticity and Theophoric Integration
The
presence of the theophoric element «El» in the personal names of Genesis 49
aligns the biblical text with the authentic Northwest Semitic onomastic
tradition documented in the Mari archives (18th century BCE). Linguistic and
archaeological evidence from Mesopotamia confirms that such naming conventions
were a hallmark of the Amorite and Hanaean social strata during the Middle
Bronze Age. This structural correspondence provides a precise chronological
anchor, situating the patriarchal narratives within the historical and cultural
milieu of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Poetic
Stylistics and Formalization of Discourse
The
application of elevated poetic devices in Genesis 49 to formalize legal and
prophetic declarations mirrors the dominant stylistic traditions of Ancient
Egyptian mythology (3rd–2nd millennia BCE). As noted in the analysis of
Egyptian mythological thought, the poetic element is not merely decorative but
serves as a primary rationalizing force for establishing sacral and political
authority. This correspondence suggests that the literary structure of the
Patriarchal blessings reflects an ancient Near Eastern tradition where the «poetic
element» was the essential medium for articulating the legitimacy of dynastic
and mythological succession.
Social
Prerogative of Primogeniture and Legal Stratification
The
structural and legal similarities between the distribution of blessings in
Genesis 49 and the inheritance laws of Mesopotamia (18th–15th centuries BCE)
confirm a shared socio-legal framework regarding birthright and primogeniture.
The hierarchy observed in the biblical text reflects the specific regulations
found in the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1760 BCE) and the Nuzi tablets (mid-2nd
millennium BCE), where the biological status of the mother (wife vs. concubine)
and the formal recognition by the patriarch determined the priority of the «right
of choice» and the allocation of the estate. These parallels securely anchor
the social dynamics of the Jacob’s family within the authentic juridical
traditions of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages.
Social
Prerogative of Primogeniture and Divine Heirship
The
ideological framework of Genesis 49 regarding the hierarchy of birth mirrors
the sacred and legal traditions of Old Kingdom Egypt (ca. 24th–22nd centuries
BCE), where the status of the «firstborn» was intrinsically linked to divine
inheritance and cosmological order. As evidenced by the Pyramid Texts (ca.
2350–2175 BCE), the designation of an heir as the «eldest son» and «first-born»
was a formalized sacral act necessary for the legitimate transfer of both
earthly and spiritual authority. This alignment suggests that the biblical
emphasis on primogeniture—and its subsequent redistribution—reflects a deeply
rooted Near Eastern socio-religious protocol that dates back to the third
millennium BCE.
Anthropological
Dualism and the Concept of the Vital Principle
The psychological
and ontological descriptions in Genesis 49 (specifically regarding the «soul»
or «glory» as a distinct entity) demonstrate a profound conceptual alignment
with the Egyptian doctrine of the Ba, prevalent from the Old Kingdom through
the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2300–1800 BCE). As documented in the Pyramid Texts and
the Coffin Texts, the «soul» is portrayed as an active, mobile force (Ba) that
can be «in control» or, conversely, depart during moments of trauma or death,
as reflected in the Story of Sinuhe. This shared anthropological dualism
indicates that the biblical text operates within a specific
Mediterranean-Levantine intellectual framework of the early to mid-2nd
millennium BCE, where the «soul» was viewed as the seat of both divine power
and individual identity.
Zootechnological
Continuity and Anatomical Knowledge
The
linguistic evidence in Genesis 49 (specifically the terminology for «hamstringing»
or «cutting») correlates with an advanced level of anatomical and veterinary
knowledge documented in Egypt from the 3rd to the 2nd millennia BCE. The
specific utilization of animal tendons and ligaments—as referenced in the
Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) and Coffin Texts (ca. 2134–2040 BCE) for
technical purposes such as rope making and sacral construction—demonstrates a
shared technological environment. Furthermore, the clinical observations
regarding the musculoskeletal system found in the Edwin Smith Papyrus indicate
a high degree of surgical and anatomical precision. This suggests that the
biblical description of physical incapacitation through «hamstringing» is
rooted in the authentic zootechnological and medical practices of the Middle
Bronze Age, where the manipulation of sinews was a fundamental aspect of both
military and economic life.
Zootechnological
Continuity and Mastery of Bovine Domestication
The
references to oxen in Genesis 49 (reflecting their role as a primary draft and
sacrificial resource) align with the advanced veterinary and agricultural
protocols documented in Mesopotamia and Egypt during the 3rd and 2nd millennia
BCE. The Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1760 BCE) explicitly codifies the legal and
financial responsibilities of veterinary surgeons operating on oxen, while the
Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) and the Story of Sinuhe highlight the
animal's central role in both the economy and funerary rites. The linguistic
distinction between the «wild bull» and the domesticated «ox» (implied through
castration and training) confirms that the biblical text reflects an authentic
Middle Bronze Age mastery of specialized zootechnological techniques essential
for sedentary and semi-nomadic societal structures.
Royal
Symbolism and the Sacred Landscape
The
convergence of the «lion» and the «sceptre» as core emblems of sovereignty in
Genesis 49 directly mirrors the royal and sacral iconography of Old and Middle
Kingdom Egypt (ca. 24th–18th centuries BCE). As evidenced by the Pyramid Texts
(ca. 2350–2175 BCE) and the Coffin Texts (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), the «Lion» (and
the «Double Lion») represents a supreme state of transfigured power and
protection, while the «sceptre» serves as a formalized legal and divine
instrument of authority. The use of these specific metaphors to establish the «dignity»
and «might» of a successor indicates that the biblical blessing of Judah
operates within an authentic Middle Bronze Age framework of sacral
legitimation, where zoomorphic imagery was the standard medium for expressing
absolute hegemonic status.
Royal
Symbolism and the Ancient Philology of Power
The
integration of the «lion» and the «sceptre» in Genesis 49 reflects a highly
formalized Near Eastern and Egyptian iconographic tradition used to legitimize
dynastic and sacral authority during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. As
documented in the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) and the Coffin Texts (ca.
2134–2040 BCE), the lion serves as a primary metaphor for the king’s
transfigured strength and his role as a «protector,» while the sceptre
functions as a tangible instrument of judicial and divine status. Furthermore,
the linguistic antiquity of the term for «lion» within Asian and Mediterranean
cultures, as noted in recent philological research, supports the view that
these metaphors are not late literary developments but are rooted in the
authentic cultural and linguistic substrate of the Middle Bronze Age.
Zooarchaeological
Verification and Early Domestication
The
biblical mention of the donkey in Genesis 49 (specifically in the context of
transport and social status) aligns with the earliest zooarchaeological
evidence from Old Kingdom Egypt (ca. 3000–2850 BCE). Archaeological findings
from the First Dynasty, such as those at Tarkhan, provide direct physical
verification of the transition from the use of donkeys for meat to their role
as essential transport and high-status burial animals. This scientific data,
confirming that the domestication and functional integration of the African
wild ass occurred as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, provides a robust
historical foundation for the technical and social terminology used in the
patriarchal narratives.
Viticultural
Metaphor and the Philology of Prosperity
The lexical
and metaphorical integration of «wine» and the «vineyard» in Genesis 49
demonstrates a direct alignment with the high-status viticultural traditions of
the Old and Middle Kingdoms of Egypt (ca. 2300–1800 BCE). As documented in the
Pyramid Texts and the Autobiography of Weni, the vine serves as both a sacral
offering and a primary indicator of territorial wealth, where its destruction
signifies total military defeat and its cultivation represents civilizational
stability. Furthermore, the linguistic origin of the word «wine» in the Eastern
Mediterranean or Southern Caucasus, combined with its literary use as a marker
of «divine favor» in the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, anchors the biblical
imagery within an authentic Bronze Age Mediterranean-Levantine cultural sphere.
Royal
Symbolism and the Ancient Philology of Power
The
integration of the «lion» and the «sceptre» in Genesis 49 reflects a highly
formalized Near Eastern and Egyptian iconographic tradition used to legitimize
dynastic and sacral authority during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. As
documented in the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) and the Coffin Texts (ca.
2134–2040 BCE), the lion serves as a primary metaphor for the king’s
transfigured strength and his role as a «protector,» while the sceptre
functions as a tangible instrument of judicial and divine status. Furthermore,
the linguistic antiquity of the term for «lion» within Asian and Mediterranean
cultures, as noted in recent philological research, supports the view that
these metaphors are not late literary developments but are rooted in the
authentic cultural and linguistic substrate of the Middle Bronze Age.
Zooarchaeological
Verification and Early Domestication
The
biblical mention of the donkey in Genesis 49 (specifically in the context of
transport and social status) aligns with the earliest zooarchaeological
evidence from Old Kingdom Egypt (ca. 3000–2850 BCE). Archaeological findings
from the First Dynasty, such as those at Tarkhan, provide direct physical
verification of the transition from the use of donkeys for meat to their role
as essential transport and high-status burial animals. This scientific data,
confirming that the domestication and functional integration of the African
wild ass occurred as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, provides a robust
historical foundation for the technical and social terminology used in the
patriarchal narratives.
Viticultural
Metaphor and the Philology of Prosperity
The lexical
and metaphorical integration of «wine» and the «vineyard» in Genesis 49
demonstrates a direct alignment with the high-status viticultural traditions of
the Old and Middle Kingdoms of Egypt (ca. 2300–1800 BCE). As documented in the
Pyramid Texts and the Autobiography of Weni, the vine serves as both a sacral
offering and a primary indicator of territorial wealth, where its destruction
signifies total military defeat and its cultivation represents civilizational
stability. Furthermore, the linguistic origin of the word «wine» in the Eastern
Mediterranean or Southern Caucasus, combined with its literary use as a marker
of «divine favor» in the Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, anchors the biblical
imagery within an authentic Bronze Age Mediterranean-Levantine cultural sphere.
Philological
Strata and the Lexicon of Intercultural Exchange
The
linguistic presence of terms for «tribute» and «horse» in the biblical and
broader Near Eastern context provides a critical chronological and geographic
anchor for Genesis 49. The likely Hurrian origin of the word for «tribute» (ca.
2021NoonanBJ:147) and the non-Indo-European roots of the term for «horse» point
to a period of intense cultural contact in the 2nd millennium BCE. These
lexical borrowings reflect the specific historical window when the Hurrian
influence was most pervasive in the Levant and when the horse was being
integrated as a transformative military and economic asset. This onomastic and philological
evidence suggests that the text’s vocabulary is rooted in the authentic
administrative and technological milieu of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages.
Zooarchaeological
and Chronological Parallelism in Equid Domestication
The
integration of horses, wagons, and specialized stable management in the
patriarchal narratives demonstrates a precise chronological alignment with the
Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2055–1650 BCE). Archaeological evidence, such as the
horse remains from Buhen, and textual data from the Mari Archives (18th century
BCE) and the Admonitions of Ipuwer, confirm that this period marked the
definitive spread of equids as symbols of status and military utility across
Egypt, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia. The transition from the bovine-led transport
of the Early Dynastic period (Ur) to the organized horse-breeding and legal
regulations found in the Hittite Laws and Mari documents anchors the technical
terminology of Genesis 49 within the authentic historical window of the early
to mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Sacral
Legitimation and the Archetype of the Triumphant Heir
The
narrative structure of succession in Genesis 49 (particularly the exaltation of
Joseph/Judah) demonstrates a profound conceptual alignment with the Egyptian
theological model of Horus as the legitimate heir of Osiris, prevalent during
the Old and Middle Kingdoms (ca. 24th–18th centuries BCE). As documented in the
Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, the «vindication» of the son through divine
support to overcome fraternal hostility or legal litigation (Horus vs. Seth)
serves as a formalized template for the transfer of both sacral and earthly
authority. Furthermore, the practical transfer of tribal leadership and
property described in the Story of Sinuhe confirms that this literary and
religious motif accurately reflects the administrative protocols of the Middle
Bronze Age, where the «eldest son» or chosen successor was officially
established as the «head of the kin.»
The
Metaphor of Divine Shepherding and Pastoral Governance
The
application of «shepherd» imagery in Genesis 49 (specifically in relation to
the «Mighty One of Jacob») exhibits a profound structural and conceptual
parallel with the royal and divine epithets of Egypt during the 3rd and 2nd
millennia BCE. As documented in the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) and the
Coffin Texts (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), the «herdsman» or «shepherd» serves as a
supreme metaphor for deities like Osiris and Ra, emphasizing their role as
tireless protectors and gatherers of the «flock» (humanity). Furthermore, the
ethical dimension of the shepherd-king—one who «spends the day herding» and
possesses «no evil in his heart»—as found in the Admonitions of Ipuwer (12th
Dynasty), reflects an authentic Middle Bronze Age socio-political ideal. This correspondence
situates the biblical pastoral metaphors within a well-established Near Eastern
tradition where the shepherd's staff was the primary symbol of legitimate,
benevolent, and divinely sanctioned authority.
Zooarchaeological
and Chronological Parallelism in Equid Domestication
The
integration of horses, wagons, and specialized stable management in the
patriarchal narratives demonstrates a precise chronological alignment with the
Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2055–1650 BCE). Archaeological evidence, such as the
horse remains from Buhen, and textual data from the Mari Archives (18th century
BCE) and the Admonitions of Ipuwer, confirm that this period marked the
definitive spread of equids as symbols of status and military utility across
Egypt, Anatolia, and Mesopotamia. The transition from the bovine-led transport
of the Early Dynastic period (Ur) to the organized horse-breeding and legal
regulations found in the Hittite Laws and Mari documents anchors the technical
terminology of Genesis 49 within the authentic historical window of the early
to mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Sacral
Legitimation and the Archetype of the Triumphant Heir
The
narrative structure of succession in Genesis 49 (particularly the exaltation of
Joseph/Judah) demonstrates a profound conceptual alignment with the Egyptian
theological model of Horus as the legitimate heir of Osiris, prevalent during
the Old and Middle Kingdoms (ca. 24th–18th centuries BCE). As documented in the
Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, the «vindication» of the son through divine
support to overcome fraternal hostility or legal litigation (Horus vs. Seth)
serves as a formalized template for the transfer of both sacral and earthly
authority. Furthermore, the practical transfer of tribal leadership and
property described in the Story of Sinuhe confirms that this literary and
religious motif accurately reflects the administrative protocols of the Middle
Bronze Age, where the «eldest son» or chosen successor was officially
established as the «head of the kin.»
The
Metaphor of Divine Shepherding and Pastoral Governance
The
application of «shepherd» imagery in Genesis 49 (specifically in relation to
the «Mighty One of Jacob») exhibits a profound structural and conceptual
parallel with the royal and divine epithets of Egypt during the 3rd and 2nd
millennia BCE. As documented in the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) and the
Coffin Texts (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), the «herdsman» or «shepherd» serves as a
supreme metaphor for deities like Osiris and Ra, emphasizing their role as
tireless protectors and gatherers of the «flock» (humanity). Furthermore, the
ethical dimension of the shepherd-king—one who «spends the day herding» and
possesses «no evil in his heart»—as found in the Admonitions of Ipuwer (12th
Dynasty), reflects an authentic Middle Bronze Age socio-political ideal. This
correspondence situates the biblical pastoral metaphors within a
well-established Near Eastern tradition where the shepherd's staff was the
primary symbol of legitimate, benevolent, and divinely sanctioned authority.
Cosmogonic
Verticality and the Shared Architecture of the Abyss
The spatial
model of blessing in Genesis 49 (extending from the «heavens above» to the «abyss
that lies beneath») demonstrates a direct conceptual and linguistic alignment
with the Bronze Age cosmogonies of Egypt and Mesopotamia (ca. 24th–18th
centuries BCE). As documented in the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) and
Coffin Texts (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), the «Abyss» represents a foundational sacral
zone from which divine authority and creative power emerge. This vertical
distribution of grace mirrors the Old Babylonian «Myth of Enki and Ninmah,»
where the «heart of the clay over the abyss» serves as the primordial material
for divine fashioning. The presence of this identical imagery—specifically the
technical use of the term «abyss»—anchors the biblical text within an authentic
Middle Bronze Age intellectual framework, where sovereignty was legitimized
through its control over the entire vertical axis of the universe.
The
Formula of Spatial Boundlessness and Territorial Sovereignty
The
application of the «bounds» (of lands or hills) cliché in Genesis 49 to define
the absolute scale of a blessing exhibits a direct structural and functional
correspondence with the official administrative and royal rhetoric of Old and
Middle Kingdom Egypt (ca. 24th–18th centuries BCE). As documented in the
Autobiographies of Harkhuf (6th Dynasty) and the Story of Sinuhe (Middle
Kingdom), the «reaching of limits» or the «vanquishing of all
lands/mountainlands» serves as a formalized literary device to legitimize
supreme authority. This shared geographical and political imagery—specifically
the extension of influence to the furthest «mountain chiefs» and «foreign lands»—anchors
the biblical blessing of Joseph within an authentic Middle Bronze Age framework
of territorial and sacral hegemony.
Ethno-Onomastic
Authenticity and the Benjaminite Nexus
The
presence of the name «Benjamin» (Binyamin) in Genesis 49 as both an anthroponym
and a tribal designation demonstrates a precise historical and linguistic
correspondence with the Amorite social landscape of the 18th century BCE.
Archaeological and textual evidence from the Mari archives (ca. 1800–1750 BCE)
confirms the existence of the Bin-Yamina («Sons of the Right/South») as a
potent confederation of tribes and political entities operating within the
Syro-Mesopotamian and Canaanite spheres. The specific references in the
Zimri-Lim correspondence to Benjaminite military mobilization and their
interactions with Canaanite populations provide a robust ethno-historical
anchor, situating the biblical tribal identity within the authentic
geopolitical and onomastic milieu of the Middle Bronze Age.
Sacral
Topos of Repatriation and the Finality of the Life Cycle
The
insistence on burial in the ancestral land in Genesis 49 (specifically Jacob’s
command to be interred in the Cave of Machpelah) mirrors the Middle Kingdom
Egyptian (ca. 20th–17th centuries BCE) ethical and religious imperative of
repatriation. As documented in the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor and the Story
of Sinuhe, returning to one's «native city» or «the land in which I was born»
was regarded as the supreme good and a prerequisite for a successful transition
to the afterlife. This shared cultural topos—where even the metaphor of the
aging crocodile returning to its «own pool» (as seen in the Myth of the Eye of
the Sun) underscores the biological and sacral necessity of the
homeland—anchors the patriarchal narrative within an authentic Middle Bronze
Age Mediterranean-Levantine value system.
Legal
Legitimation of the Necropolis and Private Property Rights
The
emphasis in Genesis 49 on the specific legal acquisition and ownership of the
burial site (the Cave of Machpelah) aligns with the Middle Kingdom Egyptian
(ca. 20th–18th centuries BCE) practice of emphasizing the inviolability of the
tomb as private legal property. As documented in the Story of Sinuhe and
various funerary inscriptions of the Middle Bronze Age, the legitimacy of a
burial depended not only on its physical construction but on its status as a «funerary
domain» with clearly defined rights. The insistence by both biblical patriarchs
and Egyptian nobles that their tombs were obtained without violating the rights
of others reflects a shared Near Eastern juridical tradition where the legal
legitimation of the necropolis was a prerequisite for ensuring the eternal
repose of the deceased and the continuity of the family cult.
Ethnogenetic
Verification and Indo-European Migratory Waves
The
presence of the «Hittite» (Heth) element in the patriarchal narratives of
Genesis 49 and the wider Pentateuch correlates with the documented
Indo-European migratory expansion into the Levant during the Middle Bronze Age
(ca. 1800 BCE). As evidenced by the archaeological and epigraphic records from
Byblos, which confirm the presence of individuals from Western Asia Minor
(Lycia) as early as the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE, the biblical
mention of Hittites within the Canaanite social fabric reflects an authentic
historical reality. This ethnogenetic data provides a specific chronological
marker, suggesting that the ethnic composition described in the patriarchal
period aligns with the transitional period of the 18th century BCE, when
Anatolian and Indo-European groups first established a presence in the
Syro-Palestinian corridor.
Ethnopolitical
Isomorphism and the Geopolitical Terminology of Canaan
The
application of the term «Canaan» in the patriarchal context exhibits a precise
functional and chronological isomorphism with the diplomatic and administrative
archives of the 18th–15th centuries BCE. As documented in the Mari archives
(ca. 1750 BCE) and the Idrimi statue (15th century BCE), the designation of «Canaanites»
was already a formalized ethno-geographic category used to identify populations
in the Syro-Palestinian corridor during the Middle and Late Bronze Ages.
Furthermore, the likely Hurrian etymology of the term (Kinahhu), as attested in
the Nuzi documents (15th century BCE), reinforces the linguistic integration of
the biblical text into the authentic historical milieu of the mid-2nd millennium
BCE. This correspondence confirms that the ethnopolitical terminology of
Genesis 49 is not an anachronistic projection but a reflection of the
established geopolitical realities of the Amorite and Hurrian expansion
periods.
The
Formula of the Testator’s Competence and Jurisprudential Idioms
The
description of the patriarch's final actions in Genesis 49:33 (the gathering of
his feet) demonstrates a direct structural and idiomatic alignment with the
legal formulas of Old and Middle Kingdom Egypt (ca. 24th–18th centuries BCE).
As documented in the testamentary dispositions of Egyptian dignitaries, the
reference to one's «legs» served as a formalized legal cliché to certify the
testator’s physical and mental competence at the moment of conveying their final
will. This shared linguistic device, which links the posture of the limbs to
the validity of a «living» disposition, suggests that the biblical account
preserves an authentic Middle Bronze Age jurisprudential protocol, where the
transition from active life to death was recorded through specific somatic and
legal markers.
General
Conclusion
The
interdisciplinary analysis of Genesis 49, conducted through the lenses of
philology, zooarchaeology, legal history, and sacral iconography, reveals a
profound and consistent alignment with the civilizations of the Ancient Near
East and Egypt during the 2nd millennium BCE.
The
investigation has identified a dense network of authentic historical markers:
Jurisprudential
and Legal Continuity: The structural parallels in the «Formula of the
Testator’s Competence,» the hierarchy of primogeniture (consistent with the
Code of Hammurabi), and the legal legitimation of the necropolis as private
property reflect the established juridical protocols of the Middle Bronze Age.
Linguistic
and Onomastic Strata: The presence of theophoric «El» elements (corroborating
the Mari archives), the Hurrian etymology of administrative terms, and the use
of the ethnonym «Canaan» align precisely with the diplomatic lexicon of the
18th–15th centuries BCE.
Technological
and Biological Verification: Zooarchaeological data regarding the domestication
and functional use of donkeys and horses, as well as specialized anatomical
knowledge of tendons and ligaments, anchor the text’s technical vocabulary in
the Middle and Late Bronze Ages.
Literary
and Sacral Isomorphism: The motifs of the «Divine Shepherd,» the «Triumphant
Heir» (Horus/Joseph), and the «Cosmogonic Abyss» demonstrate that the biblical
text operates within a specific Mediterranean-Levantine intellectual framework
prevalent between the 23rd and 16th centuries BCE.
The
convergence of these diverse scientific datasets indicates that Genesis 49 is
not a late anachronistic reconstruction, but a text that preserves the genuine «cultural
DNA» of the era it describes.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the cumulative evidence, the core narrative, technical terminology, and
socio-legal frameworks of Genesis 49 are firmly anchored in the Middle Bronze
Age (ca. 2000–1600 BCE), with specific linguistic and geopolitical elements
(such as Hurrian influence and the status of Canaan) extending into the early
Late Bronze Age (up to ca. 1450 BCE).
While the
final literary redaction may have occurred later, the empirical data—from the
Mari archives to the Middle Kingdom Egyptian papyri—suggests that the primary
historical and cultural material of the chapter was crystallized during the
first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. This renders a post-exilic or late Iron
Age origin for the core content of the chapter scientifically improbable.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 24, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 49. About round ligament of femur. March 24, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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