English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 37
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 37 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 37 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 37 Analysis
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Excerpt from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:46-47)
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Type of
similarity and justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels, Analogies, Convergences,
Borrowings, and Inversions in Archaeology, Culture, Medical Knowledge, and
Historical Facts: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Anatolia, and the Nile Valley)
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1 And Jacob dwelt in the land of his father's sojourning, in the land
of Canaan. |
Ethnopolitical Isomorphism. The presence of the term «Canaan»
is characteristic of diplomatic correspondence and legal archives of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to
Askudum (Mari archive, ARM 26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…>
awaiting the arrival of the Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In a letter
(ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El,
the Canaanite» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). The Mesopotamian archive of
Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). «It is thus evident that in mid-18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same arca where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398). «The earliest occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the
Old Testament is in the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the
middle of the fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu, which is attested by the
documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is supposed to be a Hurrian
word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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2 The.se are the generations of Jacob. Joseph, being seventeen years
old, was feeding the flock with his brothers ; and he was as a lad with the
sons of Bilhah, and with the sons of Zilpah, his father's wives ; and Joseph
brought evil reports of them unto his father. |
Socio-career isomorphism. The similarity in the
commencement of the life path and labor activities among individuals who
subsequently attained prestigious positions.
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Egypt In the tomb of the «military scribe named Kaiper from the beginning of
the 5th Dynasty», there is a record stating that he commenced his career in
the position of a «shepherd of variegated livestock» (2001КоростовцевМА:12). |
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2 The.se are the generations of Jacob. Joseph, being seventeen years
old, was feeding the flock with his brothers ; and he was as a lad with the
sons of Bilhah, and with the sons of Zilpah, his father's wives ; and Joseph
brought evil reports of them unto his father. |
Hereditary-hierarchical similarity. Conflicts and «evil reports» among the brothers find parallels in the
legally documented struggle for heir status between the children of the legal
wife and the sons of the maidservants. |
Mesopotamia According to the «Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE): «§ 170. If a
man's wife bear him children and his maid-servant bear him children, and the
father during his life time say to the children which the maid-servant bore
him : «My children», and reckon them with the children of his wife, after the
father dies the children of the wife and the children of the maid-servant
shall divide the goods of the father's house equally. The child of the wife
shall have the right of choice at the division. §171. But if the father
during his lifetime have not said to the children which the maid-servant bore
him : «My children», after the father dies, the children of the maid-servant
shall not share in the goods of the father's house with the children of the
wife. The maid-servant and her children shall be given their freedom. The
children of the wife may not lay claim to the children of the maid-servant
for service. The wife shall receive her dowry and the gift which her husband
gave and deeded to her on a tablet, and she may dwell in the house of her
husband and enjoy (the property) as long as she lives. She cannot sell it,
however, for after her (death) it belongs to her children.»
(1920HandcockPSP:28). The Nuzi archive contained a
contract (H67), according to which «As for (the concubine's) offspring, Gilimninu
shall [not] send (them) away. Any sons that out of the womb of Gilimninu [to
She]nnima may be bor[n, all the] lands, buildings, [whatever their
description,] to (these) sons are given.» 1928SpeiserEA:32).
Cuneiform tablets from Nuzi date back to the mid-second millennium BCE
(1976SelmanMJ:114). «Presumably the traditions in Genesis 12-50 containing references to
these customs [the provision of a slavegirl by a barren wife for her husband]
had a thorough acquaintance with a Mesopotamian way of life, since knowledge
of this kind can only be gained through sustained rather than occasional
contact.» (1976SelmanMJ:136).
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3 Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was
the son of his old age ; and he made him a coat of many colours. … 23 And it
came to pass, when Joseph was come unto his brothers, that they stript Joseph
of his coat, the coat of many colours that was on him ; … 32 And they sent
the coat of many colours, and they brought it to their father, and said, This
have we found : acknowledge, we pray thee, whether it be thy son's coat or
not.
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Visual-status similarity. Joseph’s unique «coat of many colors» finds direct confirmation in
Egyptian iconography of the early 2nd millennium BCE, which depicts a tribe
of Asiatics in identical variegated attire
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Near East A procession of «Asiatics» in multi-colored garments arriving in Egypt
is depicted on a fresco in the tomb of the official Khnumhotep II. It was
constructed between 1897–1878 BCE (2009KamrinJ). Other Egyptologists date this depiction of the Canaanite
caravan in the aforementioned tomb to 1895 BCE (2021BietakM_RensburgA).
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3 Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was
the son of his old age ; and he made him a coat of many colours. … 23 And it
came to pass, when Joseph was come unto his brothers, that they stript Joseph
of his coat, the coat of many colours that was on him ; … 31 And they took
Joseph's coat, and killed a he-goat, and dipped the coat in the blood; 32 And
they sent the coat of many colours, and they brought it to their father, and
said, This have we found : acknowledge, we pray thee, whether it be thy son's
coat or not. 33 And he recognised it, and said. It is my son's coat ; an evil
beast hath devoured him ; Joseph is surely torn in pieces.
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The borrowing
of the word «clothing».
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It is quite possible that all such
words are linked to the Sumerian and Akkadian word for «flax» with an
Anatolian ending (2021NoonanBJ:137-138). |
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3 Now Israel loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was
the son of his old age ; and he made him a coat of many colours. 4 And when
his brothers saw that their father loved him more than all his brothers, they
hated him, and could not speak peaceably unto him. … 7 And, behold, we were
binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my sheaf arose, and also remained
standing upright ; and, behold, your sheaves placed themselves round about,
and made obeisance to my sheaf. 8 And his brothers said to him, Shalt thou
indeed reign over us? or shalt thou indeed have dominion over us ? And they
hated him yet the more for his dreams, and for his words. 9 And he dreamed
yet another dream, and told it to his brothers; and he said, Behold, I have
dreamed a dream more; and, behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars made
obeisance to me. 10 And he told it to his father, and to his brothers ; and
his father rebuked him, and said unto him. What is this dream that thou hast
dreamed ? Shall we indeed come, I and thy mother, and thy brothers, to bow
down ourselves to thee to the earth ? 11 And his brothers envied him ; but
his father noted" the matter (in his mind). |
The conflict of heir legitimation. A common literary and mythological canon is the legitimation «by
flesh» contrary to the rights of elder brothers, which provokes rhetorical
protests and disputes regarding the justice of dominance and succession. |
Egypt The inheritance of Joseph from his father is prefigured, similar to
that of Horus from Osiris despite the claims of Seth. In Spell №. 5 from the
collection of «Coffin Texts» (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), it is explicitly stated:
«Horus, the successor of Osiris» (1973FaulknerRO:3). In Spell № 42–43 of the
«Coffin Texts», there is an unambiguous allusion to the inheritance of
Osiris's throne: «Thoth having given to him the thrones of Geb, while Horus
is heir. Horus is concerned with the business of the vindication of his
father N» (1973FaulknerRO:34). In the myth «The Contendings of Horus and Seth», the goddess Neith
recommends to the Ennead of the great gods: «Give the office of Osiris to his
son Horus, and do not commit these great injustices... and may you place Horus
in the seat of his father, Osiris» (1940МатьеМВ:86). Thus, Horus
inherited the virtual throne of Osiris on earth. In the myth «The Contendings of Horus and Seth», there is a discussion
regarding the heritage of Osiris: «The gods Onuris and Thoth uttered a great
cry, saying: "Shall the office be given to the maternal brother while
the son by flesh is present?" Banebdjedet, the great god, said:
"Will the office really be given to a youth, while Seth, his elder
brother, is present?"» (1940МатьеМВ:87).
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5 And Joseph dreamed a dream, and he told it to his brothers : and
they hated him yet the more. 6 And he said unto them, Hear, I pray you, this
dream which I have dreamed. 7 And, behold, we were binding sheaves in the
field, and, lo, my sheaf arose, and also remained standing upright ; and,
behold, your sheaves placed themselves round about, and made obeisance to my
sheaf. 8 And his brothers said to him, Shalt thou indeed reign over us? or
shalt thou indeed have dominion over us ? And they hated him yet the more for
his dreams, and for his words. 9 And he dreamed yet another dream, and told
it to his brothers; and he said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more; and,
behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. 10 And he
told it to his father, and to his brothers ; and his father rebuked him, and
said unto him. What is this dream that thou hast dreamed ? Shall we indeed
come, I and thy mother, and thy brothers, to bow down ourselves to thee to
the earth ?
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Theophanic Oneiromancy. The motif of discerning
direct divine instruction immediately upon awakening; the dream is regarded
as a legitimate channel of communication from the gods for determining
further courses of action.
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Egypt As the Egyptians believed, «The
gods also communicated their will to people in dreams» (2021МюллерМ:208). The «Famine Stela» testifies that during a period of social distress,
Pharaoh Djoser [3rd Dynasty] ordered immediate sacrifices to be brought to
Khnum. (2004РакИВ:158). This inscription,
apparently made during the Ptolemaic era, records the Egyptians' attentive
attitude toward dreams. In «The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant» (Middle Kingdom) there are the
words: «It is the sleeper who sees the dream;» (2006LichtheimM:1.178). In the «Prophecies of
Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th
Dynasty) contain an indication of a
prophetic dream: «Risen as god, hear what I tell you, That you may rule the land,
govern the shores, Increase well-being!» (2006LichtheimM:1.136). In Egypt, since the 12th Dynasty, the staff of the «Houses of Life»
(Pr-ʿnḫ), where magic, medicine, and divination were studied, were engaged in
compiling manuals that systematically recorded correspondences between dreams
and the events they foretold (1951GarnotJSF). The Egyptians had specialists
in dream interpretation, and Diodorus reported that above the library of the
Ramesseum there was an inscription: «The Place of Healing for the Soul»
(1972El-AssalG). The «Papyrus Chester Beatty III»
(BM 10683) contains the so-called «Dream Book», possibly dating back to the
12th Dynasty, which provides interpretations of dreams (1935GardinerAH:9).
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5 And Joseph dreamed a dream, and he told it to his brothers : and
they hated him yet the more. 6 And he said unto them, Hear, I pray you, this
dream which I have dreamed. 7 And, behold, we were binding sheaves in the
field, and, lo, my sheaf arose, and also remained standing upright ; and,
behold, your sheaves placed themselves round about, and made obeisance to my
sheaf. 8 And his brothers said to him, Shalt thou indeed reign over us? or
shalt thou indeed have dominion over us ? And they hated him yet the more for
his dreams, and for his words. 9 And he dreamed yet another dream, and told
it to his brothers; and he said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more; and,
behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. 10 And he
told it to his father, and to his brothers ; and his father rebuked him, and
said unto him. What is this dream that thou hast dreamed ? Shall we indeed
come, I and thy mother, and thy brothers, to bow down ourselves to thee to
the earth ? |
Theophanic Oneiromancy. The motif of discerning
direct divine instruction immediately upon awakening; the dream is regarded
as a legitimate channel of communication from the gods for determining
further courses of action.
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Mesopotamia In the Akkadian «Epic of
Gilgamesh», the hero sees a dream and attempts
to comprehend it: «The Young Men dozed off, sleeping on the couches of the night.
Enkidu was sleeping, and had a dream. He woke up and revealed his dream to
his friend.» (1989KovacsMG:56). The standard version of the «Epic of
Gilgamesh», first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800-1600 BCE)
(1989KovacsMG:xxii). The earliest evidence of the
practice of collecting dreams in Mesopotamia dates back to the Old Babylonian
period, specifically between 2003 and 1595 BCE (2006NoegelSB).
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5 And Joseph dreamed a dream, and he told it to his brothers : and
they hated him yet the more. 6 And he said unto them, Hear, I pray you, this
dream which I have dreamed. 7 And, behold, we were binding sheaves in the
field, and, lo, my sheaf arose, and also remained standing upright ; and,
behold, your sheaves placed themselves round about, and made obeisance to my
sheaf. 8 And his brothers said to him, Shalt thou indeed reign over us? or
shalt thou indeed have dominion over us ? And they hated him yet the more for
his dreams, and for his words. 9 And he dreamed yet another dream, and told
it to his brothers; and he said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more; and,
behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. 10 And he
told it to his father, and to his brothers ; and his father rebuked him, and
said unto him. What is this dream that thou hast dreamed ? Shall we indeed
come, I and thy mother, and thy brothers, to bow down ourselves to thee to
the earth ? |
Sacred prophetic infantilism. The general practice of recording children's prophecies, whose «idle
chatter» or visions were perceived as a legitimate source of the divine will. |
Egypt There existed a belief: «the cries of children playing near temples
can reveal the future: children possess a prophetic gift bestowed upon them
by the gods since the time children showed Isis where to seek the sarcophagus
with Osiris's body» (2007РакИ:137). The
Egyptians believed that through children's «cries and even through idle
chatter, one could divine the future» (2004РакИВ:78). In Plutarch (1st–2nd century CE), we find: «It is said that she [Isis]
wandered everywhere and passed no one without questioning; also, having
encountered children, she asked them about the coffin. By chance, they had
seen it and named the mouth through which the friends of Typhon [Seth] had
pushed the ark into the sea. Therefore, Egyptians think that children possess
the gift of divination and most often seek prophecies from them when they
play in sacred places and chatter whatever comes to mind» (1996Плутарх:22).
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12 And his brothers went to feed their lather's flocks in Shechem. 13
And Israel .said unto Joseph, Do not thy brothers feed (the Hocks) in Shechem
? come, and I will send thee unto them. And fie said to him, Here am I. 14
And he said to him, Go, I pray thee, see whether it be well with thy
brothers, and well with the flocks; and bring me word again. So he sent him
from the vale of Hebron, and he came to Shechem. |
Toponymic verification. The mention of the
specific settlement of Shechem within the territory of the Levant. |
Levant Shechem (Nablus) is
today the major administrative center. Settlement of the area occurred
between 4500–3200 BCE; signs of urbanization are observed in 1900–1750 BCE,
and by 1650–1550 BCE, it was already a prosperous city (1992FreedmanDN).
Archaeological research has shown that in 1650–1550 BCE, its structures were
destroyed three times, with an interruption of human activity until 1450 BCE
(1974DeverWG).
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14 And he said to him, Go, I pray thee, see whether it be well with
thy brothers, and well with the flocks; and bring me word again. So he sent
him from the vale of Hebron, and he came to Shechem. |
Toponymic verification. The correspondence between the biblical text and archaeological data
constitutes a topographical parallel that confirms the actual geographical
coexistence of the mentioned settlement during the specified historical
period.
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Levant Hebron flourished in the 17th-16th centuries and then was destroyed
and remained deserted throughout the Late Bronze Age. The date of Foundation
is still unclear (2005Na'amanN:180).
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15 And a certain man found him, and, behold, he was wandering astray
in the field ; and the man asked him, saying, What sleekest thou? 16 And he
said, I seek my brothers; tell me, 1 pray thee, where they are feeding their
flocks? 17 And the man said. They are departed hence; for I heard them say.
Let us go to Dothan. And Joseph went after his brothers, and found them in
Dothan. |
Narrative literary toponymy.
Structurally and
functionally identical to the hero's encounter with a stranger-traveler who
acts as a guide and directs the hero toward a divinely ordained destination. |
Egypt In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «Departing at
dawn I encountered a man who stood on the road. He saluted me while I was
afraid of him.» (2006LichtheimM:1.224).
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20 And now, come and let us slay him, and cast him into one of the
pits, and we will say, Some evil beast hath devoured him ; and we shall see
what will become of his dreams. … 22 And Reuben said unto them. Do not shed
blood ; but cast him into this pit that is in the wilderness, but do not lay
hand upon him ;—in order that he might deliver him out of their hand, to
bring him back again to his father. … 24 And they took him, and cast him into
the pit; and the pit was empty; there was no water in it. … 28 And when the
Midianitish men, merchants, passed by, they drew and lifted up Joseph out of
the pit, and sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver : and
they brought Joseph into Egypt. 29 And when Reuben returned unto the pit,
and, behold, Joseph was not in the pit. he rent his clothes.
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Engineering-landscape similarity. The mention of an empty cistern corresponds to archaeological data
regarding the development of complex water catchment and storage systems in
the Levant during the 2nd millennium BCE. |
Levant In the period from the end of the ninth to the end of the second
millennium BCE, a complex water management system developed in the Levant,
consisting of reservoirs, canals, tunnels, wells, and cisterns (1980MillerR). |
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25 And they sat down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and
looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmaelites was coming from Gilead ; and
their camels were bearing spicery, and balm, and lotus, going to carry it
down to Egypt.
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Zooarchaeological verification. The biblical mention of camels as part of Abraham's
property reveals a direct similarity to archaeological findings confirming
the presence and domestication of these animals in Egypt and the Sinai as
early as the Early and Middle Kingdoms. |
Egypt The domestication of camels
occurred at the beginning of the third millennium BCE in their natural
habitats: the dromedary (one-humped camel) in southeast Arabia, and the
bactrian (two-humped camel) in southwest Central Asia. Within the territory
of Egypt, several artifacts have been discovered, including a vessel in the
form of a couchant camel (1st Dynasty), several camel models (4th Dynasty), a
depiction of a camel caravan (6th Dynasty), and an image and inscription
dating back to the 19th century BCE found in the Sinai (2017SalaR). |
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25 And they sat down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and
looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmaelites was coming from Gilead ; and
their camels were bearing spicery, and balm, and lotus, going to carry it
down to Egypt.
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Economic-commodity similarity. The caravan’s cargo inventory (incense / spicery, balm, and lotus / ladanum) fully aligns with the list
of elite goods and medicinal ingredients in high demand in Egypt during the
Middle and New Kingdom eras. |
In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «We went through
the great portals, and I was put in the house of a prince. In it were
luxuries: a bathroom and mirrors. In it were riches from the treasury;
clothes of royal linen, myrrh, and the choice perfume of the king and of his
favorite courtiers were in every room.» (2006LichtheimM:1.232-233). In the «The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor»
(Middle Kingdom), goods from the Horn of Africa and the Arabian
Peninsula that were valuable to the Egyptians are listed: «Then he laughed at me for the things
I had said, which seemed foolish to him. He said to me: "You are not
rich in myrrh and all kinds of incense. But I am the lord of Punt, and myrrh
is my very own. That hknw-oil you spoke of sending, it abounds on this island."»
(2006LichtheimM:1.214). In the Egyptian «Houses of Life», where scribes and physicians worked,
«incense was stored and ointments were prepared», while «the connection
between the “house of life” and embalming» is undeniable (2001КоростовцевМА:97). On the verso of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), a
prescription for treating menstrual issues is provided, which utilizes myrrh
and frankincense (1930BreastedJH:487; sae.saw-leipzig.de). In the Ebers Papyrus, frankincense and myrrh are used in numerous
prescriptions (1889EbersG; sae.saw-leipzig.de). The Ebers
Papyrus is dated to 1553–1550 BCE (1947CastiglioniA:49).
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25 And they sat down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and
looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmaelites was coming from Gilead ; and
their camels were bearing spicery, and balm, and lotus, going to carry it
down to Egypt.
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Geographic-logistic similarity. The mention of Gilead as the starting point for the merchant caravan
corresponds to the historical geography of the region, where the Gilead
plateau served as a key hub on the routes from the Near East to Egypt.
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Levant The Gilead plateau (Gilad, Galaad) is the northern part of the
Jordanian Highlands, bounded by the Jordan River valley and the channels of
the Yarmouk and Zarqa (Zarqa River), also known as the Jabbok (КацельсонъЛ_ГинцбургъДГ:Т.16). Currently, the region is called: the Ajloun
highlands, the Eastern heights, Northern Gilead, and Jalaad. See note!
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27 Come, and let us sell him to the Ishmaelites, but let our hand not
be upon him ; for he is our brother, our flesh. And his brothers hearkened to
him. 28 And when the Midianitish men, merchants, passed by, they drew and
lifted up Joseph out of the pit, and sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for
twenty pieces of silver : and they brought Joseph into Egypt. … 36 And the
Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the
captain of the guards.
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Legal-destructive similarity. Joseph’s loss of connection with his community and family finds a
legal parallel in Mesopotamian laws, where a voluntary or forced rupture with
one’s home entailed the immediate forfeiture of civil and familial rights.
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Mesopotamia The «Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE) restricted the rights of individuals who voluntarily abandoned their community: «§ 136. If a man desert his city and flee, and afterwards his wife enter into another house ; if that man return and would take his wife, the wife of the fugitive shall not return to her husband, because he hated his city and fled.» (1920HandcockPSP:23). Similarly, Section 30 of the «Laws of Eshnunna» infringes upon the rights of a person who hated his city and his master and fled (1988YaronR:61). It is assumed that the law tablets were produced during the reigns of the Mesopotamian kings Dadusha, Shamshi-Adad, and Hammurabi (1988YaronR:20). This period approximately corresponds to the 20th–17th centuries BCE. See note! |
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27 Come, and let us sell him to the Ishmaelites, but let our hand not
be upon him ; for he is our brother, our flesh. And his brothers hearkened to
him. 28 And when the Midianitish men, merchants, passed by, they drew and
lifted up Joseph out of the pit, and sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for
twenty pieces of silver : and they brought Joseph into Egypt. … 36 And the
Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the
captain of the guards.
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Economic-chronological parallelism. The identity of a slave's market value, reflecting the specific
economic reality of the early second millennium in Egypt. |
The price of twenty shekels of silver paid for Joseph is the correct
average price for a slave around the 18th century BCE (1966KitchenKA:53-54). |
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29 And when Reuben returned unto the pit, and, behold, Joseph was not
in the pit. he rent his clothes. … 34 And Jacob rent his clothes, and put
sackcloth upon his loins, and mourned for his son many days. |
Ritual-demonstrative
similarity. The act of rending garments
by Reuben and Jacob as an expression of extreme despair and protest fully
aligns with the protocol for the public expression of grief and indignation
recorded in the diplomatic correspondence of the 18th-century BCE Mari
archives.
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Mesopotamia In the royal archives of Mari, a letter (ARM 26/2 370) from Yarim-Addu to his lord Zimri-Lim was discovered, reporting a protest by Elamite messengers: «These messengers [did not stop shouting] at the palace gates; they rent their garments with their own hands». One of the protesters is asked: «Why do you constantly shout at the palace gates and rend your garments?» (1988CharpinD_LafontB:175-177, archibab.fr). The Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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36 And the Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of
Pharaoh's, the captain of the guards.
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Borrowing the word
«Potiphar» |
A loanword from Egyptian; the name means «he whom Ra has given»
(2009UlmerR:258)." |
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36 And the Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of
Pharaoh's, the captain of the guards. |
Military-administrative similarity. The mention of bodyguards corresponds to historical data regarding the
existence of a specialized palace guard and the personal security of a
high-ranking official during the Middle Kingdom era.
|
In the «Instruction of King Amenemhat» (12th Dynasty) we read: «As my
heart began to follow sleep, weapons for my protection were turned against
me, while I was like a snake of the desert. I awoke at the fighting, alert,
and found it was a combat of the guard. Had I quickly seized weapons in my
hand, I would have made the cowards retreat in haste.» (2006LichtheimM:1.137). On the wall of the tomb of the nomarch Ameni (Amenemhat) of the Middle
Kingdom era, who served Senusret I (12th Dynasty), «bodyguards-armor-bearers»
are depicted (2004РакИВ:197).
|
Gloss
on the Ishmaelites and Midianite Merchants
25 And they sat down to eat bread : and they
lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmaelites was
coming from Gilead ; and their camels were bearing spicery, and balm, and
lotus, going to carry it down to Egypt.
26 And Judah said unto his brothers. What
profit will it be if we slay our brother, and conceal his blood ?
27 Come, and let us sell him to the
Ishmaelites, but let our hand not be upon him ; for he is our brother, our
flesh. And his brothers hearkened to him.
28 And when the Midianitish men, merchants,
passed by, they drew and lifted up Joseph out of the pit, and sold Joseph to
the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver : and they brought Joseph into
Egypt.
36 And the Midianites sold him into Egypt unto
Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the captain of the guards.
People from Media begin to appear in texts from
858–824 BCE during the reign of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III
(2021GopnikH). This ruler fought the Median king Hanasiruka in 834 BCE
(2023RadnerK_PottsDT). The Median state rose some time later under Cyaxares,
who, together with the Babylonian king Nabopolassar, besieged Nineveh, the
capital of the Assyrian Empire, in 616–609 BCE (2000GraysonAK). According to
the traditional view, the Persian king Cyrus the Great conquered Media around
553 BCE (2014AndersonSD). Thus, this kingdom and toponym were absorbed by
Persia.
Midianite merchants could have led caravans to Egypt from the 9th to the middle of the 6th century BCE. Later, trade was conducted by Persian merchants, and earlier by Assyrian ones. This implies that the discussed intervention in the protograph, through the mention of merchants from Media, was carried out between the 9th and 6th centuries BCE. In the Book of Genesis, the term «Ishmaelites» is used as a synonym for the «Midianites» (Genesis 37:25; 39:1). It has been noted that mentions of them disappear from biblical texts after the middle of the 10th century BCE (1976EphʿalI). This suggests that the «Ishmaelites» represent an older inclusion. It is customary to associate the biblical Ishmaelites with the Arabs. The first evidence of these nomads inhabiting Northern Arabia was identified on the «Stele of Tiglath-Pileser III», who ruled from 744–727 BCE (2014ShuaibMG).
Hypothesis on Socio-Career Migration.
It is suggested that the author, being well-acquainted
with Mesopotamian laws, deliberately transformed a historical scenario of a
voluntary escape from a provincial environment to a metropolitan region into a
narrative of forced sale. This literary device allowed the protagonist—a
talented and ambitious youth—to bypass the legal status of a 'fugitive' (who,
according to the Codes of Hammurabi and Eshnunna, forfeited all civil and
familial rights), thereby preserving his moral grounds for future social and
familial restoration.
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 37
Ethnopolitical
and Lexical Context (Canaan / Kinahhu)
The
analysis of the term «Canaan» reveals a distinct chronological horizon.
Mentions of Canaanites in the diplomatic correspondence of the Mari archives
(18th century BCE) and on the Idrimi statue (15th century BCE) confirm that by
the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE, this ethnonym was already established
to designate inhabitants of the region south of Qatna. The linguistic link to
the Hurrian term Kinahhu (purple), attested in documents from Nuzi (15th
century BCE), further verifies the antiquity of the toponym, anchoring it in
the unique economic realities of the region.
Socio-Career
Isomorphism (Shepherd of Variegated Livestock)
The
commencement of Joseph's life path as a shepherd (Gen. 37:2) finds a direct
isomorphism in Egyptian epigraphy (the tomb of Kaiper). The fact that
high-ranking officials, such as military scribes, began their careers in the
position of a «shepherd of variegated livestock» desacralizes shepherding as an
exclusively lowly occupation. It places Joseph’s youth within the standard
career development model of the Ancient Egyptian elite, a tradition originating
in the Old Kingdom and persisting through the Middle Kingdom.
Hereditary-Hierarchical
and Legal Context (Hammurabi / Nuzi)
The
conflict between Joseph and his brothers (Gen. 37:2) is deeply rooted in the
Mesopotamian legal traditions of the 18th–15th centuries BCE. The «Code of
Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE) and the Nuzi archives (mid-2nd millennium BCE)
explicitly regulate the status of children born to «maid-servants» or
concubines. The tension described in the biblical text reflects a specific
historical reality where the inheritance rights of such sons (like those of
Bilhah and Zilpah) depended on formal paternal recognition. The presence of
these intricate social customs suggests that the narrative core was formed
during a period of sustained contact with Mesopotamian culture in the Middle
Bronze Age.
Visual-Status
and Iconographic Parallelism (Khnumhotep II)
The «coat
of many colors» (Gen. 37:3) ceases to be a literary abstraction when compared
with Egyptian iconography from the early 19th century BCE. The frescoes in the
tomb of Khnumhotep II (ca. 1897–1878 BCE) provide a precise archaeological and
visual anchor, depicting Asiatic caravans in multi-colored garments. This
correspondence confirms that such attire was a recognized marker of ethnic
identity for Northwest Semitic tribes during the Middle Kingdom era.
Linguistic
Borrowing and Textile Technology (Flax / Sumerian-Akkadian Link)
The
terminology for «clothing» in the Joseph narrative reveals a sophisticated
linguistic layer. The potential link between these terms and the Sumerian and
Akkadian word for «flax» (with an Anatolian suffix) suggests a terminus
connected to the trade and textile technologies of the Bronze Age. This
linguistic connection highlights the era's cross-cultural exchange between
Mesopotamia and Anatolia, pointing to an early period when these specific
textile terms were integrated into the Semitic vocabulary.
Mythological
and Literary Legitimation (Horus vs. Seth / Osiris)
The
conflict over Joseph’s inheritance (Gen. 37:3–4) mirrors the Egyptian literary
and mythological canon of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2134–2040 BCE). The «Coffin
Texts» and the myth of «The Contendings of Horus and Seth» establish a clear
precedent for legitimation «by flesh» (the son) over the traditional seniority
rights of the «maternal brother» (Seth). The rhetorical debate regarding the
justice of a «youth» inheriting the father’s office instead of an elder
relative provides a structural and thematic parallel to Joseph’s elevation,
suggesting the author was deeply influenced by Egyptian concepts of succession
and divine vindication.
Theophanic
Oneiromancy and Divine Communication (Dream-Books / Houses of Life)
The motif
of Joseph’s prophetic dreams (Gen. 37:5–10) aligns with the established
socio-religious practices of Egypt and Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium
BCE. In Egypt, the emergence of systematic dream interpretation manuals, such
as the «Dream Book» (Papyrus Chester Beatty III, potentially dating to the 12th
Dynasty), and the role of the «Houses of Life» (Pr-ʿnḫ) as centers for divination,
confirm that dreams were regarded as legitimate channels of divine will. This «Place
of Healing for the Soul» (Ramesseum) provided a formal framework for
oneiromancy that Joseph’s narrative reflects—where dreams are not mere «sleepers'
visions» but structured omens requiring expert discernment.
Near
Eastern Literary Parallels (Gilgamesh / Old Babylonian Period)
The
structural pattern of «dreaming–awakening–revealing» (Gen. 37:6) finds a
precise literary parallel in the Akkadian «Epic of Gilgamesh», specifically in
the standard version originating in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600 BCE).
The practice of documenting and collecting dreams in Mesopotamia (2003–1595
BCE) underscores that Joseph’s dreams are situated within a specific «oneiromantic
tradition» of the Middle Bronze Age. The attentive attitude of Jacob and the
brothers toward Joseph’s visions mirrors the historical reality where dreams
dictated further courses of action and political outcomes.
Sacred
Prophetic Infantilism (Divination through Children)
The
reception of Joseph’s dreams by his father Jacob (Gen. 37:10–11) reflects a
specific Ancient Egyptian cultural belief regarding «prophetic infantilism.»
The tradition, rooted in the myth of Isis and the children who revealed the
location of Osiris's ark, established children as legitimate conduits of divine
will. The Egyptian practice of seeking prophecies from the «idle chatter» or
cries of children playing in sacred spaces provides a historical rationale for
why Joseph's adolescent visions were not merely dismissed as immature vanity
but were «kept in mind» (shamar) by his father as potentially authentic divine
communications.
Toponymic
and Archaeological Verification (Shechem)
The mention
of Shechem (Gen. 37:12–14) as a place for pasturing flocks serves as a precise
geographical and chronological anchor. Archaeological data confirms that
Shechem (Nablus) underwent significant urbanization and became a prosperous
city between 1900 and 1550 BCE. The narrative setting corresponds to the peak of
the city's prosperity in the Middle Bronze Age II. Furthermore, the recorded
destruction and subsequent interruption of activity until 1450 BCE suggests
that the «open field» setting of the Joseph story fits the period of either
high urbanization or the immediate pre-destruction phase, aligning with the
17th–16th centuries BCE.
Zooarchaeological
Verification (Camel Domestication and Usage)
The mention
of camels in the Ishmaelite caravan (Gen. 37:25) finds significant support in
Egyptian and Sinaitic archaeology of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Contrary to
the theory of late domestication, artifacts such as camel-shaped vessels from
the 1st Dynasty, models from the 4th Dynasty, and caravan depictions from the
6th Dynasty confirm that these animals were known and utilized in the region
long before the Iron Age. Specifically, the presence of camel inscriptions and
imagery in the Sinai dating to the 19th century BCE aligns perfectly with the
patriarchal era, validating the presence of dromedaries in trans-regional trade
routes during the Middle Bronze Age.
Chronological
Integrity (The Camel as a Transport Asset)
The
zooarchaeological data suggests that while the mass «industrial» use of camels
in desert trade peaked in the 1st millennium BCE, their role as specialized
transport animals for elite goods (incense, resins) was already established by
the early 2nd millennium BCE. This confirms that the mention of camels in
Genesis 37 is not necessarily a late anachronism, but rather a reflection of an
authentic, albeit specialized, logistical reality of the Middle Kingdom and the
Hyksos period.
Archaeological
Topography and Chronology (Hebron)
The mention
of Hebron (Gen. 37:14) as the starting point of Joseph’s journey provides a
critical chronological anchor. Archaeological evidence indicates that Hebron
flourished specifically during the 17th–16th centuries BCE (Middle Bronze Age).
Its subsequent destruction and total desertion throughout the Late Bronze Age
strongly suggest that the narrative core reflects a period prior to the 16th
century BCE. The geographical reality of a functional, inhabited Hebron as
described in the text aligns perfectly with the peak of its Middle Bronze Age
development, making a later Iron Age origin for this specific detail historically
inconsistent.
Narrative
Literary Toponymy (The Stranger-Guide)
The
encounter between Joseph and the «certain man» who finds him wandering in the
field (Gen. 37:15–17) follows a structural and functional pattern identical to
Middle Kingdom Egyptian literature. In the «Story of Sinuhe» (ca. 1900 BCE),
the hero’s encounter with a stranger on the road serves as a pivotal plot
device to redirect the protagonist toward his destiny. This literary
isomorphism suggests that the Joseph narrative utilizes a «guiding stranger»
motif that was a standard and sophisticated element of 2nd millennium BCE
storytelling, framing the hero’s journey within a divinely or providentially
ordained path.
Engineering-Landscape
Similarity (Cisterns and Water Management)
The
narrative detail of Joseph being cast into an empty «pit» or cistern (bor) in
the wilderness (Gen. 37:20–24) is a precise reflection of the technological
landscape of the Levant during the 2nd millennium BCE. Archaeological evidence
confirms the development of sophisticated water catchment systems, including
rock-cut cisterns and reservoirs, which were essential for pastoral and urban
life in this semi-arid region. The description of a cistern that was «empty,
with no water in it» perfectly captures the seasonal reality of these
structures, identifying them as potential places of temporary confinement
during the dry periods of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages.
Economic-Commodity
Similarity (Caravan Trade and Medicinal Logistics)
The
specific inventory of the Ishmaelite/Midianite caravan—spicery, balm, and
lotus/ladanum (Gen. 37:25)—perfectly aligns with the Egyptian import market of
the Middle and New Kingdoms (ca. 2000–1500 BCE). Literary sources like the «Story
of Sinuhe» and the «Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor» confirm that incense,
myrrh, and rare oils were the primary luxury goods of the era. Furthermore,
medical papyri such as the Edwin Smith (1650–1550 BCE) and Ebers (1553–1550
BCE) demonstrate a systematic demand for these specific resins in Egyptian
pharmacology and the ritual practices of the «Houses of Life.» This inventory
serves as a highly accurate economic marker of the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Geographic-Logistic
Context (Gilead as a Trade Hub)
The mention
of Gilead (Gen. 37:25) as the starting point for the caravan reflects an
authentic geographical reality. The Gilead plateau was a vital transit node
connecting the northern Highlands (Transjordan) with the main trade arteries
leading to Egypt. This detail confirms the author's precise knowledge of the
Levantine «incense route» logistics, which remained consistent from the 2nd
millennium BCE onwards.
Legal-Destructive
Similarity and the «Fugitive» Status (Hammurabi / Eshnunna)
The
narrative of Joseph’s separation from his family (Gen. 37:27–28) finds a
profound legal parallel in the Mesopotamian Codes of the 20th–17th centuries
BCE. According to the Laws of Hammurabi (§ 136) and Eshnunna (§ 30), a person
who «hated his city and fled» (a fugitive) effectively committed social
suicide, forfeiting all civil and familial rights, including the right to
reclaim his wife or property. This legal environment provides the necessary
background for understanding the total «social death» Joseph experienced upon
being sold/expelled.
Hypothesis
on Socio-Career Migration
There is a
compelling analytical possibility that the «forced sale» was a literary
reinterpretation of a voluntary escape. Given the severe Mesopotamian penalties
for fugitives, a talented and ambitious youth fleeing his provincial life for
the Egyptian metropolis would be legally dead to his family. By framing the
departure as a forced sale, the author effectively «saved» the hero’s legal
standing, allowing for his eventual moral and social restoration within the
family hierarchy.
Editorial
Chronology: The Ishmaelite-Midianite Gloss
The
synonymous use of «Ishmaelites» and «Midianites» (Gen. 37:25, 28) reveals
different chronological layers within the text. While «Ishmaelites» represent
an older inclusion (disappearing from biblical records after the 10th century
BCE), the term «Midianites/Medes» (associated with the rise of the Median state
between the 9th and 6th centuries BCE) points to a later editorial
intervention. This suggests that the ancient 2nd millennium BCE protograph was
updated by a 1st-millennium editor to reflect the commercial dominance of
Median/Persian-era merchant networks.
Economic-Chronological
Parallelism (The Price of 20 Shekels)
The sale of
Joseph for twenty shekels of silver (Gen. 37:28) serves as a precise «economic
fossil» for dating the narrative's core. As demonstrated by K. Kitchen, this
sum was the standard average price for a slave specifically during the 18th
century BCE (Middle Bronze Age). Since the price of slaves in the Near East
rose significantly in later periods (reaching 50-60 shekels in the 1st
millennium BCE), this detail confirms that the tradition preserves a very
accurate record of the economic realities of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Ritual-Demonstrative
Similarity (Rending of Garments and the Mari Archive)
The public
act of rending garments by Reuben and Jacob (Gen. 37:29, 34) is not merely a
literary trope of grief, but a documented Near Eastern diplomatic and legal
protocol. The correspondence from the Mari archives (18th century BCE)
describes Elamite messengers performing the exact same ritual at the palace
gates to express protest and extreme indignation. This behavioral isomorphism
reinforces the connection between the Genesis text and the socio-cultural codes
of the Old Babylonian and Middle Kingdom eras.
Linguistic
Onomastics (The Etymology of «Potiphar»)
The name
Potiphar (Gen. 37:36) serves as a direct linguistic bridge to Ancient Egypt. As
a loanword meaning «he whom Ra has given», it reflects a classic Egyptian
sentence-name structure. The presence of this specific theophoric name
reinforces the authenticity of the Egyptian setting, situating the narrative
within a period of significant cultural and linguistic interaction between the
Semitic-speaking Levant and the Nile Valley.
Military-Administrative
Similarity (The Royal Guard)
The
description of Potiphar as the «captain of the guards» (Gen. 37:36) is an
accurate reflection of the Middle Kingdom (12th Dynasty) military hierarchy.
Both literary sources, such as the «Instruction of King Amenemhat I,» and
iconographic evidence from the tomb of the nomarch Ameni (reign of Senusret I),
confirm the existence of a specialized corps of bodyguards and armor-bearers.
These «guard combats» and depictions of personal security for high-ranking
officials provide a precise historical template for Potiphar’s office,
validating the administrative terminology used in the text.
General
Conclusion
The
interdisciplinary analysis conducted herein reveals that Genesis Chapter 37
represents a multi-layered historical document, the foundational substrate of
which is inextricably linked to the socio-economic and legal realities of the
Near East in the 2nd millennium BCE.
Key
Synthetic Arguments:
Economic
and Legal Foundation: The purchase price of a slave at twenty shekels and the
legal logic governing the status of a «fugitive» (consistent with the Codes of
Hammurabi and Eshnunna) firmly anchor the narrative core to the 18th century
BCE.
Egyptian
Administrative Context: The name Potiphar and his title as «captain of the
guards» find precise parallels in the onomastics and military hierarchy of the
Middle Kingdom (12th Dynasty).
Archaeological
and Geographic Verification: The prosperity of Hebron and Shechem during the
18th–16th centuries BCE, alongside the presence of sophisticated water
catchment systems (cisterns), confirms the topographical accuracy of the
narrative for the Middle Bronze Age.
Cultural
and Literary Isomorphism: Motifs such as the «variegated garments» of Asiatics
(Tomb of Khnumhotep II), prophetic dreams, and encounters with a «stranger-guide»
(The Story of Sinuhe) are characteristic of the high literary traditions of the
19th–18th centuries BCE.
Redactional
Stratigraphy: The synonymous use of «Midianites» and «Ishmaelites» points to
later editorial revisions (9th–6th centuries BCE), which adapted the ancient
protograph to the commercial realities of the 1st millennium BCE.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the cumulative evidence, the final verdict regarding the dating of Genesis
Chapter 37 is as follows:
Primary
Protograph (Narrative Core): Formulated in the 18th–17th centuries BCE (Middle
Bronze Age II / Hyksos period), as evidenced by the unique convergence of
market prices and legal norms of that specific era.
Literary
Refinement and Redaction: The text underwent a process of preservation and
partial terminological updating (merchant glosses) between the 9th and 6th
centuries BCE, while meticulously retaining archaic details that no longer aligned
with the economic conditions of later periods.
Final Assessment: Genesis Chapter 37 serves as a highly credible historical record of the social and economic life of the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE, preserved through a robust written and oral tradition.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 17, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 37. About round ligament of femur. March 17, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
NB! Fair practice / use: copied for the purposes of criticism, review, comment, research and private study in accordance with Copyright Laws of the US: 17 U.S.C. §107; Copyright Law of the EU: Dir. 2001/29/EC, art.5/3a,d; Copyright Law of the RU: ГК РФ ст.1274/1.1-2,7
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