English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 37
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 37 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 37 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 37 Analysis
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Excerpts from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:46-47)
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Type of
Similarity and Justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels,
Analogies, Similarity, Borrowings, Inversions)
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1 And Jacob dwelt
in the land of his father's sojourning, in the land of Canaan. |
Ethnopolitical Isomorphism The presence of the term «Canaan»
is characteristic of diplomatic correspondence and legal archives of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants
of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to Askudum (Mari archive, ARM
26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…> awaiting the arrival of the
Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In another letter (ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu
addressed to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned
(1988CharpinD:303–305). The Mari
archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Furthermore, according to Na'aman, «It
is thus evident that in mid–18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same area where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398).
Notably, «The earliest
occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the Old Testament is in
the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the middle of the
fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). Additionally, «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu, which
is attested by the documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is
supposed to be a Hurrian word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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2 The.se are the
generations of Jacob. Joseph, being seventeen years old, was feeding the
flock with his brothers ; and he was as a lad with the sons of Bilhah, and
with the sons of Zilpah, his father's wives ; and Joseph brought evil reports
of them unto his father. |
Socio-Career Isomorphism The similarity in the commencement of the life path and labor
activities among individuals who subsequently attained prestigious positions.
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Egypt As evidenced by the tomb of the «military scribe named Kaiper from the
beginning of the 5th Dynasty», there is a record stating that he commenced
his career in the position of a «shepherd of variegated livestock» (2001КоростовцевМА:12). |
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2 The.se are the
generations of Jacob. Joseph, being seventeen years old, was feeding the
flock with his brothers ; and he was as a lad with the sons of Bilhah, and
with the sons of Zilpah, his father's wives ; and Joseph brought evil reports
of them unto his father. |
Hereditary-Hierarchical Similarity Conflicts and «evil reports» among
the brothers find parallels in the legally documented struggle for heir
status between the children of the legal wife and the sons of the
maidservants. |
Mesopotamia In the Mesopotamian legal tradition, according to the «Code of
Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE): «§ 170. If a man's wife bear him children and his
maid-servant bear him children, and the father during his life time say to
the children which the maid-servant bore him : «My children», and reckon them
with the children of his wife, after the father dies the children of the wife
and the children of the maid-servant shall divide the goods of the father's
house equally. The child of the wife shall have the right of choice at the
division. § 171. But if the father during his lifetime has not said to the
children which the maid-servant bore him : «My children», after the father
dies, the children of the maid-servant shall not share in the goods of the
father's house with the children of the wife. The maid-servant and her
children shall be given their freedom. The children of the wife may not lay
claim to the children of the maid-servant for service. The wife shall receive
her dowry and the gift which her husband gave and deeded to her on a tablet,
and she may dwell in the house of her husband and enjoy (the property) as
long as she lives. She cannot sell it, however, for after her (death) it
belongs to her children.» (1920HandcockPSP:28). Similarly, the Nuzi archive contains a contract (H67), according to
which «As for (the concubine's) offspring, Gilimninu shall [not] send (them)
away. Any sons that out of the womb of Gilimninu [to She]nnima may be bor[n,
all the] lands, buildings, [whatever their description,] to (these) sons are
given.» (1928SpeiserEA:32). The cuneiform tablets from Nuzi
date back to the mid-second millennium BCE (1976SelmanMJ:114). Reflecting on these parallels,
scholars note that «Presumably the traditions in Genesis 12–50
containing references to these customs [the provision of a slavegirl by a
barren wife for her husband] had a thorough acquaintance with a Mesopotamian
way of life, since knowledge of this kind can only be gained through
sustained rather than occasional contact.» (1976SelmanMJ:136).
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3 Now Israel
loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old
age ; and he made him a coat of many colours. … 13 And Israel .said unto
Joseph, Do not thy brothers feed (the Hocks) in Shechem ? come, and I will
send thee unto them. And fie said to him, Here am I.
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Onomastic Authenticity The identified structural
similarity in the use of the theophoric element «El» confirms that the
biblical text belongs to the authentic Near Eastern naming tradition of the
early 2nd millennium BCE. |
Mesopotamia The theophoric
element «El» in personal names is frequently encountered in the documents of
the Mari archives. An example is a letter (ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his
lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). Furthermore, in a letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed
to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Hanaean» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Additionally, Yeskit-El, in a
letter (ARM 26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian
source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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3 Now Israel
loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old
age ; and he made him a coat of many colours. … 23 And it came to pass, when
Joseph was come unto his brothers, that they stript Joseph of his coat, the
coat of many colours that was on him ; … 32 And they sent the coat of many
colours, and they brought it to their father, and said, This have we found :
acknowledge, we pray thee, whether it be thy son's coat or not.
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Visual-Status Similarity Joseph’s unique «coat of many
colors» finds direct confirmation in Egyptian iconography of the early 2nd
millennium BCE, which depicts a tribe of Asiatics in identical variegated
attire
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Near East A procession of «Asiatics» in multicolored garments arriving in Egypt
is depicted on a fresco in the tomb of the official Khnumhotep II. It was
constructed between 1897–1878 BCE (2009KamrinJ). Other Egyptologists date this depiction of the Canaanite
caravan in the aforementioned tomb to 1895 BCE (2021BietakM_RensburgA).
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3 Now Israel
loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old
age ; and he made him a coat of many colours. … 23 And it came to pass, when
Joseph was come unto his brothers, that they stript Joseph of his coat, the
coat of many colours that was on him ; … 31 And they took Joseph's coat, and
killed a he-goat, and dipped the coat in the blood; 32 And they sent the coat
of many colours, and they brought it to their father, and said, This have we
found : acknowledge, we pray thee, whether it be thy son's coat or not. 33
And he recognised it, and said. It is my son's coat ; an evil beast hath
devoured him ; Joseph is surely torn in pieces. |
The Borrowing of the Word «Clothing»
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Regarding linguistics, it is quite possible that all such words are
linked to the Sumerian and Akkadian word for «flax» with an Anatolian ending
(2021NoonanBJ:137–138). |
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3 Now Israel
loved Joseph more than all his children, because he was the son of his old
age ; and he made him a coat of many colours. 4 And when his brothers saw
that their father loved him more than all his brothers, they hated him, and
could not speak peaceably unto him. … 7 And, behold, we were binding sheaves
in the field, and, lo, my sheaf arose, and also remained standing upright ;
and, behold, your sheaves placed themselves round about, and made obeisance
to my sheaf. 8 And his brothers said to him, Shalt thou indeed reign over us?
or shalt thou indeed have dominion over us ? And they hated him yet the more
for his dreams, and for his words. 9 And he dreamed yet another dream, and
told it to his brothers; and he said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more;
and, behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. 10
And he told it to his father, and to his brothers ; and his father rebuked
him, and said unto him. What is this dream that thou hast dreamed ? Shall we
indeed come, I and thy mother, and thy brothers, to bow down ourselves to
thee to the earth ? 11 And his brothers envied him ; but his father noted the
matter (in his mind).
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The Conflict of Heir Legitimation A common literary and mythological canon is the legitimation «by
flesh» contrary to the rights of elder brothers, which provokes rhetorical
protests and disputes regarding the justice of dominance and succession.
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Egypt The theme of inheritance is deeply rooted in Egyptian tradition; for
instance, the inheritance of Joseph from his father is prefigured by that of
Horus from Osiris, despite the claims of Seth. In Spell № 5 from the
collection of «Coffin Texts» (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), it is explicitly stated:
«Horus, the successor of Osiris» (1973FaulknerRO:3). Similarly, in Spell № 42–43 of the «Coffin Texts», there is an unambiguous allusion to
the inheritance of the throne: «Thoth having given to him the thrones
of Geb, while Horus is heir. Horus is concerned with the business of the
vindication of his father N» (1973FaulknerRO:34). Furthermore, in the myth «The Contendings of Horus and Seth», the
goddess Neith recommends to the Ennead of the great gods: «Give the office of
Osiris to his son Horus, and do not commit these great injustices... and may
you place Horus in the seat of his father, Osiris» (1940МатьеМВ:86). Thus, Horus inherited the virtual
throne of Osiris on earth. The same myth also records a discussion regarding the heritage of
Osiris:
«The gods Onuris and Thoth uttered a great cry, saying: "Shall the
office be given to the maternal brother while the son by flesh is
present?" Banebdjedet, the great god, said: "Will the office really
be given to a youth, while Seth, his elder brother, is present?"»
(1940МатьеМВ:87).
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5 And Joseph
dreamed a dream, and he told it to his brothers : and they hated him yet the
more. 6 And he said unto them, Hear, I pray you, this dream which I have
dreamed. 7 And, behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my
sheaf arose, and also remained standing upright ; and, behold, your sheaves
placed themselves round about, and made obeisance to my sheaf. 8 And his
brothers said to him, Shalt thou indeed reign over us? or shalt thou indeed
have dominion over us ? And they hated him yet the more for his dreams, and
for his words. 9 And he dreamed yet another dream, and told it to his
brothers; and he said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more; and, behold, the
sun and the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. 10 And he told it to
his father, and to his brothers ; and his father rebuked him, and said unto
him. What is this dream that thou hast dreamed ? Shall we indeed come, I and
thy mother, and thy brothers, to bow down ourselves to thee to the earth ?
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Theophanic Oneiromancy The motif of discerning direct divine instruction immediately upon
awakening; the dream is regarded as a legitimate channel of communication
from the gods for determining further courses of action.
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Egypt As the Egyptians believed, «The gods also communicated their will to
people in dreams» (2021МюллерМ:208). For instance,
the
«Famine Stela» testifies that during a period of social distress, Pharaoh
Djoser (3rd Dynasty) ordered immediate sacrifices to be brought to Khnum
(2004РакИВ:158). Although this inscription was
apparently made during the Ptolemaic era, records the Egyptians' attentive
attitude toward dreams. In Middle Kingdom literature, similar themes appear. In the «Tale of the Eloquent Peasant» (Middle Kingdom) there are the
words: «It is the sleeper who sees the dream;» (2006LichtheimM:1.178). Similarly, the «Prophecies of Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty) contain an indication of a prophetic
dream: «Risen as god, hear what I tell you, That you may rule the
land, govern the shores, Increase well-being!» (2006LichtheimM:1.136). Institutionally, since the 12th Dynasty, the staff of the «Houses of
Life» (Pr-ʿnḫ), where magic, medicine, and divination were studied, were
engaged in compiling manuals that systematically recorded correspondences
between dreams and the events they foretold (1951GarnotJSF). The Egyptians possessed specialists
in dream interpretation, and Diodorus reported that above the library of the
Ramesseum there was an inscription: «The Place of Healing for the Soul»
(1972El-AssalG). Furthermore,
the «Papyrus Chester Beatty III» (BM 10683) contains the so-called «Dream
Book», possibly dating back to the 12th Dynasty, which provides detailed interpretations
of dreams (1935GardinerAH:9).
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5 And Joseph
dreamed a dream, and he told it to his brothers : and they hated him yet the
more. 6 And he said unto them, Hear, I pray you, this dream which I have
dreamed. 7 And, behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my
sheaf arose, and also remained standing upright ; and, behold, your sheaves
placed themselves round about, and made obeisance to my sheaf. 8 And his
brothers said to him, Shalt thou indeed reign over us? or shalt thou indeed
have dominion over us ? And they hated him yet the more for his dreams, and
for his words. 9 And he dreamed yet another dream, and told it to his brothers;
and he said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more; and, behold, the sun and
the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. 10 And he told it to his
father, and to his brothers ; and his father rebuked him, and said unto him.
What is this dream that thou hast dreamed ? Shall we indeed come, I and thy
mother, and thy brothers, to bow down ourselves to thee to the earth ?
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Theophanic Oneiromancy The motif of discerning direct divine instruction immediately upon
awakening; the dream is regarded as a legitimate channel of communication
from the gods for determining further courses of action.
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Mesopotamia In the Akkadian «Epic of Gilgamesh», the hero sees a dream and attempts to comprehend it: «The Young Men
dozed off, sleeping on the couches of the night. Enkidu was sleeping, and had
a dream. He woke up and revealed his dream to his friend.» (1989KovacsMG:56).
Notably, the standard
version of the «Epic of Gilgamesh» was first written in the Old Babylonian
period (1800–1600 BCE) (1989KovacsMG:xxii). Similarly, in a letter (ARM 26/1 225) from an
unknown correspondent found in the Mari archives, the text reads: «My Lord
wrote to me the following words: "A dream that I have dreamt has troubled
me". <…> Having received the message from my Lord, I summoned the
diviners with the following inquiry: "My Lord has sent me an urgent
communication; what is your counsel?" After I posed this question to
them, they provided their response in these words…» (1988CharpinD:466, archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key
Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Finally,
the earliest evidence of
the practice of collecting dreams in Mesopotamia dates back to the Old
Babylonian period, specifically between 2003 and 1595 BCE (2006NoegelSB).
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5 And Joseph
dreamed a dream, and he told it to his brothers : and they hated him yet the
more. 6 And he said unto them, Hear, I pray you, this dream which I have
dreamed. 7 And, behold, we were binding sheaves in the field, and, lo, my
sheaf arose, and also remained standing upright ; and, behold, your sheaves
placed themselves round about, and made obeisance to my sheaf. 8 And his
brothers said to him, Shalt thou indeed reign over us? or shalt thou indeed
have dominion over us ? And they hated him yet the more for his dreams, and
for his words. 9 And he dreamed yet another dream, and told it to his
brothers; and he said, Behold, I have dreamed a dream more; and, behold, the
sun and the moon and eleven stars made obeisance to me. 10 And he told it to
his father, and to his brothers ; and his father rebuked him, and said unto
him. What is this dream that thou hast dreamed ? Shall we indeed come, I and
thy mother, and thy brothers, to bow down ourselves to thee to the earth ?
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Sacred Prophetic Infantilism The general practice of recording children's prophecies, whose «idle
chatter» or visions were perceived as a legitimate source of the divine will. |
Egypt In Ancient Egypt, there existed a widespread belief that «the cries of
children playing near temples can reveal the future: children possess a
prophetic gift bestowed upon them by the gods since the time children showed
Isis where to seek the sarcophagus with Osiris's body» (2007РакИ:137). Specifically,
the Egyptians believed that through children's «cries and even through
idle chatter, one could divine the future» (2004РакИВ:78). This tradition is also documented in the works of Plutarch (1st–2nd
century CE), where we
find: «It is said that she [Isis] wandered everywhere and passed no one
without questioning; also, having encountered children, she asked them about
the coffin. By chance, they had seen it and named the mouth through which the
friends of Typhon [Seth] had pushed the ark into the sea. Therefore,
Egyptians think that children possess the gift of divination and most often
seek prophecies from them when they play in sacred places and chatter
whatever comes to mind» (1996Плутарх:22).
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12 And his
brothers went to feed their lather's flocks in Shechem. 13 And Israel .said
unto Joseph, Do not thy brothers feed (the Hocks) in Shechem ? come, and I
will send thee unto them. And fie said to him, Here am I. 14 And he said to
him, Go, I pray thee, see whether it be well with thy brothers, and well with
the flocks; and bring me word again. So he sent him from the vale of Hebron,
and he came to Shechem.
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Toponymic
Verification The mention of the
specific settlement of Shechem within the territory of the Levant. |
Levant Shechem (Nablus) is today the major administrative center. Settlement
of the area occurred between 4500–3200 BCE; signs of urbanization are
observed in 1900–1750 BCE, and by 1650–1550 BCE, it was already a prosperous
city (1992FreedmanDN). Archaeological research has shown that in 1650–1550
BCE, its structures were destroyed three times, with an interruption of human
activity until 1450 BCE (1974DeverWG).
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14 And he said to
him, Go, I pray thee, see whether it be well with thy brothers, and well with
the flocks; and bring me word again. So he sent him from the vale of Hebron,
and he came to Shechem. |
Toponymic Verification The correspondence between the
biblical text and archaeological data constitutes a topographical parallel
that confirms the actual geographical coexistence of the mentioned settlement
during the specified historical period.
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Levant Hebron flourished
in the 17th–16th centuries BCE, but was subsequently destroyed and remained deserted throughout the
Late Bronze Age. The date of its foundation remains unclear (2005Na'amanN:180).
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15 And a certain
man found him, and, behold, he was wandering astray in the field ; and the
man asked him, saying, What sleekest thou? 16 And he said, I seek my
brothers; tell me, 1 pray thee, where they are feeding their flocks? 17 And
the man said. They are departed hence; for I heard them say. Let us go to
Dothan. And Joseph went after his brothers, and found them in Dothan.
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Narrative Literary Toponymy Structurally and functionally identical to the hero's encounter with a
stranger-traveler who acts as a guide and directs the hero toward a divinely
ordained destination.
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Egypt As recorded in the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «Departing at
dawn I encountered a man who stood on the road. He saluted me while I was
afraid of him.» (2006LichtheimM:1.224).
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20 And now, come
and let us slay him, and cast him into one of the pits, and we will say, Some
evil beast hath devoured him ; and we shall see what will become of his
dreams. … 22 And Reuben said unto them. Do not shed blood ; but cast him into
this pit that is in the wilderness, but do not lay hand upon him ;—in order
that he might deliver him out of their hand, to bring him back again to his
father. … 24 And they took him, and cast him into the pit; and the pit was
empty; there was no water in it. … 28 And when the Midianitish men,
merchants, passed by, they drew and lifted up Joseph out of the pit, and sold
Joseph to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver : and they brought
Joseph into Egypt. 29 And when Reuben returned unto the pit, and, behold,
Joseph was not in the pit. he rent his clothes.
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Engineering-Landscape Similarity The mention of an empty cistern
corresponds to archaeological data regarding the development of complex water
catchment and storage systems in the Levant during the 2nd millennium BCE. |
Levant Regarding the development of infrastructure, in the period from the
end of the ninth to the end of the second millennium BCE, a complex water
management system developed in the Levant, consisting of reservoirs, canals,
tunnels, wells, and cisterns (1980MillerR). |
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25 And they sat
down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a
company of Ishmaelites was coming from Gilead ; and their camels were bearing
spicery, and balm, and lotus, going to carry it down to Egypt.
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Zooarchaeological Verification The biblical mention of camels reveals a direct similarity to archaeological findings confirming the presence and domestication of these animals in Egypt and the Sinai as early as the Early and Middle Kingdoms. |
Egypt The domestication
of camels occurred at the beginning of the third millennium BCE in their
natural habitats: the dromedary (one-humped camel) in southeast Arabia, and
the Bactrian (two-humped camel) in southwest Central Asia. Within the
territory of Egypt, several artifacts have been discovered, including a
vessel in the form of a couchant camel (1st Dynasty), several camel models
(4th Dynasty), a depiction of a camel caravan (6th Dynasty), and an image and
inscription dating back to the 19th century BCE found in the Sinai
(2017SalaR). |
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25 And they sat
down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a
company of Ishmaelites was coming from Gilead ; and their camels were bearing
spicery, and balm, and lotus, going to carry it down to Egypt.
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Economic-commodity similarity The caravan’s cargo inventory
(incense / spicery, balm, and lotus
/ ladanum) fully aligns with the
list of elite goods and medicinal ingredients in high demand in Egypt during
the Middle and New Kingdom eras. |
Egypt As recorded in the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «We went through
the great portals, and I was put in the house of a prince. In it were
luxuries: a bathroom and mirrors. In it were riches from the treasury;
clothes of royal linen, myrrh, and the choice perfume of the king and of his
favorite courtiers were in every room.» (2006LichtheimM:1.232–233). Similarly, in the «Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor»
(Middle Kingdom), goods from the Horn of Africa and the Arabian
Peninsula that were valuable to the Egyptians are listed: «Then he laughed at me for the things
I had said, which seemed foolish to him. He said to me: "You are not
rich in myrrh and all kinds of incense. But I am the lord of Punt, and myrrh
is my very own. That hknw-oil you spoke of sending, it abounds on this island."»
(2006LichtheimM:1.214). In the Egyptian «Houses of Life», where
scribes and physicians worked, «incense was stored and ointments were
prepared», while «the connection between the "house of life" and
embalming» is considered
undeniable (2001КоростовцевМА:97). Practical applications of these
substances are found in medical texts; for instance, on the verso of the
«Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), a prescription for treating menstrual
issues is provided, which utilizes myrrh and frankincense (1930BreastedJH:487;
sae.saw-leipzig.de). Furthermore, in the «Ebers
Papyrus», frankincense and myrrh are used in numerous prescriptions
(1889EbersG; sae.saw-leipzig.de). The «Ebers
Papyrus» is dated to 1553–1550 BCE (1947CastiglioniA:49). The ritual importance of these
aromatics is also noted in the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty),
we find: «Remember ... , fumigating with incense, libating from a jar at
dawn.» (2006LichtheimM:1.159).
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25 And they sat
down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold, a
company of Ishmaelites was coming from Gilead ; and their camels were bearing
spicery, and balm, and lotus, going to carry it down to Egypt.
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Geographic-Logistic Similarity The mention of Gilead as the
starting point for the merchant caravan corresponds to the historical
geography of the region, where the Gilead plateau served as a key hub on the
routes from the Near East to Egypt. |
Levant Regarding the geography of the Levant, the Gilead plateau (Gilad,
Galaad) is the northern part of the Jordanian Highlands, bounded by the
Jordan River valley and the channels of the Yarmouk and Zarqa rivers (the latter also known as the Jabbok) (КацельсонъЛ_ГинцбургъДГ:Т.16). Currently,
the region is known by several names, including the Ajloun highlands, the
Eastern heights, Northern Gilead, and Jalaad (2024АрхиповСВ).
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27 Come, and let
us sell him to the Ishmaelites, but let our hand not be upon him ; for he is
our brother, our flesh. And his brothers hearkened to him. 28 And when the
Midianitish men, merchants, passed by, they drew and lifted up Joseph out of
the pit, and sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver : and
they brought Joseph into Egypt. … 36 And the Midianites sold him into Egypt
unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the captain of the guards.
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Legal-Destructive Similarity Joseph’s loss of connection with
his community and family finds a legal parallel in Mesopotamian laws, where a
voluntary or forced rupture with one’s home entailed the immediate forfeiture
of civil and familial rights.
|
Mesopotamia In the Mesopotamian legal tradition, the «Code of Hammurabi» (ca.
1760 BCE) restricted the rights of individuals who voluntarily abandoned
their community: Ǥ 136. If a man desert his city and flee, and afterwards his wife
enter into another house ; if that man return and would take his wife, the
wife of the fugitive shall not return to her husband, because he hated his
city and fled.» (1920HandcockPSP:23). Similarly,
Section 30 of the «Laws of Eshnunna» infringes upon the rights of a person
who hated his city and his master and fled (1988YaronR:61). It is
established that the law tablets were produced during the reigns of
the Mesopotamian kings Dadusha, Shamshi-Adad, and Hammurabi (1988YaronR:20).
This period approximately corresponds to the 20th–17th centuries BCE. See note!
|
|
27 Come, and let
us sell him to the Ishmaelites, but let our hand not be upon him ; for he is
our brother, our flesh. And his brothers hearkened to him. 28 And when the
Midianitish men, merchants, passed by, they drew and lifted up Joseph out of
the pit, and sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver : and
they brought Joseph into Egypt. … 36 And the Midianites sold him into Egypt
unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the captain of the guards.
|
Economic-Chronological Parallelism The identity of a slave's market value, reflecting the specific
economic reality of the early second millennium in Egypt. |
Egypt Regarding the economic context of the era, the price of twenty shekels
of silver paid for Joseph is the correct average price for a slave around the
18th century BCE (1966KitchenKA:53–54). |
|
29 And when
Reuben returned unto the pit, and, behold, Joseph was not in the pit. he rent
his clothes. … 34 And Jacob rent his clothes, and put sackcloth upon his
loins, and mourned for his son many days. |
Ritual-Demonstrative Similarity The act of rending garments by Reuben and Jacob as an expression of
extreme despair and protest fully aligns with the protocol for the public
expression of grief and indignation recorded in the diplomatic correspondence
of the 18th-century BCE Mari archives.
|
Mesopotamia In the royal archives of Mari, a letter (ARM 26/2 370) from
Yarim-Addu to his lord Zimri-Lim describes
a protest by Elamite messengers: «These messengers [did not stop
shouting] at the palace gates; they rent their garments with their own
hands». According to the text,
one of the protesters was
asked: «Why do you constantly shout at the palace gates and rend your
garments?» (1988CharpinD_LafontB:175–177, archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half
of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
|
|
36 And the
Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the
captain of the guards.
|
The Borrowing the Word «Pharaoh» |
The term «Pharaoh» derives from an Egyptian word that
originally designated the palace or the residence of the king and his
administration. By the 12th Dynasty, it became associated with the three
wishes following the royal name (life, prosperity, health), and by the New
Kingdom, the term began to be used as a title for the king himself
(2021NoonanBJ:183).
|
|
36 And the
Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the
captain of the guards.
|
The Borrowing the Word
«Potiphar» |
Regarding the etymology, this is a
loanword from Egyptian; the name means «he whom Ra has given» (2009UlmerR:258). |
|
36 And the
Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the
captain of the guards. |
Military-Administrative Similarity The mention of bodyguards
corresponds to historical data regarding the existence of a specialized
palace guard and the personal security of a high-ranking official during the
Middle Kingdom era.
|
Egypt The vulnerability of the Pharaoh, even within his own palace, is a
recurring theme in Middle Kingdom literature. In the «Instruction of King
Amenemhat» (12th Dynasty), we read: «As my heart began to follow sleep,
weapons for my protection were turned against me, while I was like a snake of
the desert. I awoke at the fighting, alert, and found it was a combat of the
guard. Had I quickly seized weapons in my hand, I would have made the cowards
retreat in haste.» (2006LichtheimM:1.137). This literary account of the royal guard finds visual support in
funerary art; on the wall of the tomb of the nomarch Ameni (Amenemhat) of the Middle
Kingdom era, who served Senusret I (12th Dynasty), «bodyguards-armor-bearers»
are depicted (2004РакИВ:197).
|
Gloss (Ishmaelites and Midianite
Merchants)
25 And they
sat down to eat bread : and they lifted up their eyes and looked, and, behold,
a company of Ishmaelites was coming from Gilead ; and their camels were bearing
spicery, and balm, and lotus, going to carry it down to Egypt.
26 And
Judah said unto his brothers. What profit will it be if we slay our brother,
and conceal his blood ?
27 Come,
and let us sell him to the Ishmaelites, but let our hand not be upon him ; for
he is our brother, our flesh. And his brothers hearkened to him.
28 And when
the Midianitish men, merchants, passed by, they drew and lifted up Joseph out
of the pit, and sold Joseph to the Ishmaelites for twenty pieces of silver :
and they brought Joseph into Egypt.
36 And the
Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, an officer of Pharaoh's, the
captain of the guards.
From
a historical perspective, people from Media begin to appear in texts dating from 858–824 BCE during the reign of the Assyrian
king Shalmaneser III (2021GopnikH). This ruler notably fought the Median king
Hanasiruka in 834 BCE (2023RadnerK_PottsDT). The Median state rose to
prominence some time later under Cyaxares, who, together with the Babylonian
king Nabopolassar, besieged Nineveh — the capital of the Assyrian Empire — in
616–609 BCE (2000GraysonAK). According to the traditional view, the Persian
king Cyrus the Great conquered Media around 553 BCE (2014AndersonSD), after
which this kingdom and toponym were absorbed by Persia.
Accordingly, Midianite merchants
could have led caravans to Egypt primarily from the 9th to the middle of the
6th century BCE. Later, trade was conducted largely by Persian merchants, and
earlier by Assyrian ones. This implies that the intervention in the protograph
regarding merchants from Media was likely carried out between the 9th and 6th
centuries BCE.
Furthermore, in the Book of Genesis,
the term «Ishmaelites» is used as a synonym for the «Midianites» (Genesis
37:25; 39:1). It has been noted that mentions of the former disappear from
biblical texts after the middle of the 10th century BCE (1976EphʿalI),
suggesting that the «Ishmaelites» represent an older narrative inclusion. While
it is customary to associate the biblical Ishmaelites with the Arabs, the first
extra-biblical evidence of these nomads inhabiting Northern Arabia was
identified on the «Stele of Tiglath-Pileser III», who ruled from 744–727 BCE
(2014ShuaibMG).
Hypothesis on Socio-Career Migration
It is suggested that the author,
being well-acquainted with Mesopotamian laws, deliberately transformed a
historical scenario of a voluntary escape from a provincial environment to a
metropolitan region into a narrative of forced sale. This literary device
allowed the protagonist — a talented and ambitious youth — to bypass the legal
status of a «fugitive». Under the Codes of Hammurabi and Eshnunna, such a
status would have caused him to forfeit all civil and familial rights. By
framing the departure as a sale, the narrative preserved his moral grounds for
future social and familial restoration.
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 37
Ethnopolitical
and Lexical Context (Canaan / Kinahhu)
The
analysis of the term «Canaan» reveals a distinct chronological horizon.
Mentions of Canaanites in the diplomatic correspondence of the Mari archives
(18th century BCE) and on the Idrimi statue (15th century BCE) confirm that by
the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE, this ethnonym was already established
to designate inhabitants of the region south of Qatna. The linguistic link to
the Hurrian term Kinahhu (purple), attested in documents from Nuzi (15th
century BCE), further verifies the antiquity of the toponym, anchoring it in
the unique economic realities of the region.
Socio-Career
Isomorphism (Shepherd of Variegated Livestock)
The
commencement of Joseph's life path as a shepherd (Gen. 37:2) finds a direct
isomorphism in Egyptian epigraphy (the tomb of Kaiper). The fact that
high-ranking officials, such as military scribes, began their careers in the
position of a «shepherd of variegated livestock» desacralizes shepherding as an
exclusively lowly occupation. It places Joseph’s youth within the standard
career development model of the Ancient Egyptian elite, a tradition originating
in the Old Kingdom and persisting through the Middle Kingdom.
Hereditary-Hierarchical
and Legal Context (Hammurabi / Nuzi)
The
conflict between Joseph and his brothers (Gen. 37:2) is deeply rooted in the
Mesopotamian legal traditions of the 18th–15th centuries BCE. The «Code of
Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE) and the Nuzi archives (mid-2nd millennium BCE)
explicitly regulate the status of children born to «maid-servants» or
concubines. The tension described in the biblical text reflects a specific
historical reality where the inheritance rights of such sons (like those of
Bilhah and Zilpah) depended on formal paternal recognition. The presence of
these intricate social customs suggests that the narrative core was formed
during a period of sustained contact with Mesopotamian culture in the Middle
Bronze Age.
Visual-Status
and Iconographic Parallelism (Khnumhotep II)
The «coat
of many colors» (Gen. 37:3) ceases to be a literary abstraction when compared
with Egyptian iconography from the early 19th century BCE. The frescoes in the
tomb of Khnumhotep II (ca. 1897–1878 BCE) provide a precise archaeological and
visual anchor, depicting Asiatic caravans in multi-colored garments. This
correspondence confirms that such attire was a recognized marker of ethnic
identity for Northwest Semitic tribes during the Middle Kingdom era.
Linguistic
Borrowing and Textile Technology (Flax / Sumerian-Akkadian Link)
The
terminology for «clothing» in the Joseph narrative reveals a sophisticated
linguistic layer. The potential link between these terms and the Sumerian and
Akkadian word for «flax» (with an Anatolian suffix) suggests a terminus
connected to the trade and textile technologies of the Bronze Age. This
linguistic connection highlights the era's cross-cultural exchange between
Mesopotamia and Anatolia, pointing to an early period when these specific
textile terms were integrated into the Semitic vocabulary.
Mythological
and Literary Legitimation (Horus vs. Seth / Osiris)
The
conflict over Joseph’s inheritance (Gen. 37:3–4) mirrors the Egyptian literary
and mythological canon of the Middle Kingdom (ca. 2134–2040 BCE). The «Coffin
Texts» and the myth of «The Contendings of Horus and Seth» establish a clear
precedent for legitimation «by flesh» (the son) over the traditional seniority
rights of the «maternal brother» (Seth). The rhetorical debate regarding the
justice of a «youth» inheriting the father’s office instead of an elder
relative provides a structural and thematic parallel to Joseph’s elevation,
suggesting the author was deeply influenced by Egyptian concepts of succession
and divine vindication.
Theophanic
Oneiromancy and Divine Communication (Dream-Books / Houses of Life)
The motif
of Joseph’s prophetic dreams (Gen. 37:5–10) aligns with the established
socio-religious practices of Egypt and Mesopotamia during the 2nd millennium
BCE. In Egypt, the emergence of systematic dream interpretation manuals, such
as the «Dream Book» (Papyrus Chester Beatty III, potentially dating to the 12th
Dynasty), and the role of the «Houses of Life» (Pr-ʿnḫ) as centers for divination,
confirm that dreams were regarded as legitimate channels of divine will. This «Place
of Healing for the Soul» (Ramesseum) provided a formal framework for
oneiromancy that Joseph’s narrative reflects—where dreams are not mere «sleepers'
visions» but structured omens requiring expert discernment.
Near
Eastern Literary Parallels (Gilgamesh / Old Babylonian Period)
The
structural pattern of «dreaming–awakening–revealing» (Gen. 37:6) finds a
precise literary parallel in the Akkadian «Epic of Gilgamesh», specifically in
the standard version originating in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600 BCE).
The practice of documenting and collecting dreams in Mesopotamia (2003–1595
BCE) underscores that Joseph’s dreams are situated within a specific «oneiromantic
tradition» of the Middle Bronze Age. The attentive attitude of Jacob and the
brothers toward Joseph’s visions mirrors the historical reality where dreams
dictated further courses of action and political outcomes.
Sacred
Prophetic Infantilism (Divination through Children)
The
reception of Joseph’s dreams by his father Jacob (Gen. 37:10–11) reflects a
specific Ancient Egyptian cultural belief regarding «prophetic infantilism.»
The tradition, rooted in the myth of Isis and the children who revealed the
location of Osiris's ark, established children as legitimate conduits of divine
will. The Egyptian practice of seeking prophecies from the «idle chatter» or
cries of children playing in sacred spaces provides a historical rationale for
why Joseph's adolescent visions were not merely dismissed as immature vanity
but were «kept in mind» (shamar) by his father as potentially authentic divine
communications.
Toponymic
and Archaeological Verification (Shechem)
The mention
of Shechem (Gen. 37:12–14) as a place for pasturing flocks serves as a precise
geographical and chronological anchor. Archaeological data confirms that
Shechem (Nablus) underwent significant urbanization and became a prosperous
city between 1900 and 1550 BCE. The narrative setting corresponds to the peak of
the city's prosperity in the Middle Bronze Age II. Furthermore, the recorded
destruction and subsequent interruption of activity until 1450 BCE suggests
that the «open field» setting of the Joseph story fits the period of either
high urbanization or the immediate pre-destruction phase, aligning with the
17th–16th centuries BCE.
Zooarchaeological
Verification (Camel Domestication and Usage)
The mention
of camels in the Ishmaelite caravan (Gen. 37:25) finds significant support in
Egyptian and Sinaitic archaeology of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Contrary to
the theory of late domestication, artifacts such as camel-shaped vessels from
the 1st Dynasty, models from the 4th Dynasty, and caravan depictions from the
6th Dynasty confirm that these animals were known and utilized in the region
long before the Iron Age. Specifically, the presence of camel inscriptions and
imagery in the Sinai dating to the 19th century BCE aligns perfectly with the
patriarchal era, validating the presence of dromedaries in trans-regional trade
routes during the Middle Bronze Age.
Chronological
Integrity (The Camel as a Transport Asset)
The
zooarchaeological data suggests that while the mass «industrial» use of camels
in desert trade peaked in the 1st millennium BCE, their role as specialized
transport animals for elite goods (incense, resins) was already established by
the early 2nd millennium BCE. This confirms that the mention of camels in
Genesis 37 is not necessarily a late anachronism, but rather a reflection of an
authentic, albeit specialized, logistical reality of the Middle Kingdom and the
Hyksos period.
Archaeological
Topography and Chronology (Hebron)
The mention
of Hebron (Gen. 37:14) as the starting point of Joseph’s journey provides a
critical chronological anchor. Archaeological evidence indicates that Hebron
flourished specifically during the 17th–16th centuries BCE (Middle Bronze Age).
Its subsequent destruction and total desertion throughout the Late Bronze Age
strongly suggest that the narrative core reflects a period prior to the 16th
century BCE. The geographical reality of a functional, inhabited Hebron as
described in the text aligns perfectly with the peak of its Middle Bronze Age
development, making a later Iron Age origin for this specific detail historically
inconsistent.
Narrative
Literary Toponymy (The Stranger-Guide)
The
encounter between Joseph and the «certain man» who finds him wandering in the
field (Gen. 37:15–17) follows a structural and functional pattern identical to
Middle Kingdom Egyptian literature. In the «Story of Sinuhe» (ca. 1900 BCE),
the hero’s encounter with a stranger on the road serves as a pivotal plot
device to redirect the protagonist toward his destiny. This literary
isomorphism suggests that the Joseph narrative utilizes a «guiding stranger»
motif that was a standard and sophisticated element of 2nd millennium BCE
storytelling, framing the hero’s journey within a divinely or providentially
ordained path.
Engineering-Landscape
Similarity (Cisterns and Water Management)
The
narrative detail of Joseph being cast into an empty «pit» or cistern (bor) in
the wilderness (Gen. 37:20–24) is a precise reflection of the technological
landscape of the Levant during the 2nd millennium BCE. Archaeological evidence
confirms the development of sophisticated water catchment systems, including
rock-cut cisterns and reservoirs, which were essential for pastoral and urban
life in this semi-arid region. The description of a cistern that was «empty,
with no water in it» perfectly captures the seasonal reality of these
structures, identifying them as potential places of temporary confinement
during the dry periods of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages.
Economic-Commodity
Similarity (Caravan Trade and Medicinal Logistics)
The
specific inventory of the Ishmaelite/Midianite caravan—spicery, balm, and
lotus/ladanum (Gen. 37:25)—perfectly aligns with the Egyptian import market of
the Middle and New Kingdoms (ca. 2000–1500 BCE). Literary sources like the «Story
of Sinuhe» and the «Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor» confirm that incense,
myrrh, and rare oils were the primary luxury goods of the era. Furthermore,
medical papyri such as the Edwin Smith (1650–1550 BCE) and Ebers (1553–1550
BCE) demonstrate a systematic demand for these specific resins in Egyptian
pharmacology and the ritual practices of the «Houses of Life.» This inventory
serves as a highly accurate economic marker of the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Geographic-Logistic
Context (Gilead as a Trade Hub)
The mention
of Gilead (Gen. 37:25) as the starting point for the caravan reflects an
authentic geographical reality. The Gilead plateau was a vital transit node
connecting the northern Highlands (Transjordan) with the main trade arteries
leading to Egypt. This detail confirms the author's precise knowledge of the
Levantine «incense route» logistics, which remained consistent from the 2nd
millennium BCE onwards.
Legal-Destructive
Similarity and the «Fugitive» Status (Hammurabi / Eshnunna)
The
narrative of Joseph’s separation from his family (Gen. 37:27–28) finds a
profound legal parallel in the Mesopotamian Codes of the 20th–17th centuries
BCE. According to the Laws of Hammurabi (§ 136) and Eshnunna (§ 30), a person
who «hated his city and fled» (a fugitive) effectively committed social
suicide, forfeiting all civil and familial rights, including the right to
reclaim his wife or property. This legal environment provides the necessary
background for understanding the total «social death» Joseph experienced upon
being sold/expelled.
Hypothesis
on Socio-Career Migration
There is a
compelling analytical possibility that the «forced sale» was a literary
reinterpretation of a voluntary escape. Given the severe Mesopotamian penalties
for fugitives, a talented and ambitious youth fleeing his provincial life for
the Egyptian metropolis would be legally dead to his family. By framing the
departure as a forced sale, the author effectively «saved» the hero’s legal
standing, allowing for his eventual moral and social restoration within the
family hierarchy.
Editorial
Chronology: The Ishmaelite-Midianite Gloss
The
synonymous use of «Ishmaelites» and «Midianites» (Gen. 37:25, 28) reveals
different chronological layers within the text. While «Ishmaelites» represent
an older inclusion (disappearing from biblical records after the 10th century
BCE), the term «Midianites/Medes» (associated with the rise of the Median state
between the 9th and 6th centuries BCE) points to a later editorial
intervention. This suggests that the ancient 2nd millennium BCE protograph was
updated by a 1st-millennium editor to reflect the commercial dominance of
Median/Persian-era merchant networks.
Economic-Chronological
Parallelism (The Price of 20 Shekels)
The sale of
Joseph for twenty shekels of silver (Gen. 37:28) serves as a precise «economic
fossil» for dating the narrative's core. As demonstrated by K. Kitchen, this
sum was the standard average price for a slave specifically during the 18th
century BCE (Middle Bronze Age). Since the price of slaves in the Near East
rose significantly in later periods (reaching 50-60 shekels in the 1st
millennium BCE), this detail confirms that the tradition preserves a very
accurate record of the economic realities of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Ritual-Demonstrative
Similarity (Rending of Garments and the Mari Archive)
The public
act of rending garments by Reuben and Jacob (Gen. 37:29, 34) is not merely a
literary trope of grief, but a documented Near Eastern diplomatic and legal
protocol. The correspondence from the Mari archives (18th century BCE)
describes Elamite messengers performing the exact same ritual at the palace
gates to express protest and extreme indignation. This behavioral isomorphism
reinforces the connection between the Genesis text and the socio-cultural codes
of the Old Babylonian and Middle Kingdom eras.
Linguistic
Onomastics (The Etymology of «Potiphar»)
The name
Potiphar (Gen. 37:36) serves as a direct linguistic bridge to Ancient Egypt. As
a loanword meaning «he whom Ra has given», it reflects a classic Egyptian
sentence-name structure. The presence of this specific theophoric name
reinforces the authenticity of the Egyptian setting, situating the narrative
within a period of significant cultural and linguistic interaction between the
Semitic-speaking Levant and the Nile Valley.
Military-Administrative
Similarity (The Royal Guard)
The
description of Potiphar as the «captain of the guards» (Gen. 37:36) is an
accurate reflection of the Middle Kingdom (12th Dynasty) military hierarchy.
Both literary sources, such as the «Instruction of King Amenemhat I,» and
iconographic evidence from the tomb of the nomarch Ameni (reign of Senusret I),
confirm the existence of a specialized corps of bodyguards and armor-bearers.
These «guard combats» and depictions of personal security for high-ranking
officials provide a precise historical template for Potiphar’s office,
validating the administrative terminology used in the text.
General
Conclusion
The
interdisciplinary analysis conducted herein reveals that Genesis Chapter 37
represents a multi-layered historical document, the foundational substrate of
which is inextricably linked to the socio-economic and legal realities of the
Near East in the 2nd millennium BCE.
Key
Synthetic Arguments:
Economic
and Legal Foundation: The purchase price of a slave at twenty shekels and the
legal logic governing the status of a «fugitive» (consistent with the Codes of
Hammurabi and Eshnunna) firmly anchor the narrative core to the 18th century
BCE.
Egyptian
Administrative Context: The name Potiphar and his title as «captain of the
guards» find precise parallels in the onomastics and military hierarchy of the
Middle Kingdom (12th Dynasty).
Archaeological
and Geographic Verification: The prosperity of Hebron and Shechem during the
18th–16th centuries BCE, alongside the presence of sophisticated water
catchment systems (cisterns), confirms the topographical accuracy of the
narrative for the Middle Bronze Age.
Cultural
and Literary Isomorphism: Motifs such as the «variegated garments» of Asiatics
(Tomb of Khnumhotep II), prophetic dreams, and encounters with a «stranger-guide»
(The Story of Sinuhe) are characteristic of the high literary traditions of the
19th–18th centuries BCE.
Redactional
Stratigraphy: The synonymous use of «Midianites» and «Ishmaelites» points to
later editorial revisions (9th–6th centuries BCE), which adapted the ancient
protograph to the commercial realities of the 1st millennium BCE.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the cumulative evidence, the final verdict regarding the dating of Genesis
Chapter 37 is as follows:
Primary
Protograph (Narrative Core): Formulated in the 18th–17th centuries BCE (Middle
Bronze Age II / Hyksos period), as evidenced by the unique convergence of
market prices and legal norms of that specific era.
Literary
Refinement and Redaction: The text underwent a process of preservation and
partial terminological updating (merchant glosses) between the 9th and 6th
centuries BCE, while meticulously retaining archaic details that no longer aligned
with the economic conditions of later periods.
Final Assessment: Genesis Chapter 37 serves as a highly credible historical record of the social and economic life of the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE, preserved through a robust written and oral tradition.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 17, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 37. About round ligament of femur. March 17, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
NB! Fair practice / use: copied for the purposes of criticism, review, comment, research and private study in accordance with Copyright Laws of the US: 17 U.S.C. §107; Copyright Law of the EU: Dir. 2001/29/EC, art.5/3a,d; Copyright Law of the RU: ГК РФ ст.1274/1.1-2,7
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