English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 43
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 43 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 43 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 43 Analysis
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Excerpt from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:55-56)
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Type of
similarity and justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels, Analogies, Convergences,
Borrowings, and Inversions in Archaeology, Culture, Medical Knowledge, and
Historical Facts: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Anatolia, and the Nile Valley)
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1 And the famine was sore in the land. 2 And
it came to pass, when they had Completely eaten up the provisions which they
had brought out of Egypt, that their father said unto them. Go again, buy us
a little food. |
Description of the food collapse. The
similarity is observed in the detailed recording of the social consequences
of a large-scale food deficit. In the context of the biblical narrative, the
famine could only have been caused by climate change in the Eastern
Mediterranean region. |
Egypt The «Famine Stela» testifies that during a period of social distress,
Pharaoh Djoser [3rd Dynasty] ordered immediate sacrifices to be brought to
Khnum. That same night, Khnum appeared to him in a dream. The Pharaoh swore a
sacred oath to the god that his altars would henceforth never be impoverished
(2004РакИВ:158). This inscription,
apparently made during the Ptolemaic era, records a period of food shortages.
In «The Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we find: «Lo, Hapy
inundates and none plow for him, All say, "We don't know what has
happened in the land." Lo, women are barren, none conceive, Khnum does
not fashion because of the state of the land. <…> «Lo, the great hunger and suffer, <…>
Lo, [one eats] herbs, washed down with water, Birds find neither fruit nor
herbs, One takes --- from the mouth of pigs, No face is bright ... hunger.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.151,154-155). In the «Prophecies of
Neferti» (reign
of Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty) it is stated: «None speak, none shed tears: "How fares
this land!" The sundisk, covered, shines not for people to see, One
cannot live when clouds conceal, All are numbs from lack of it. I shall
describe what is before me, I do not foretell what does not come: Dry is the
river of Egypt, One crosses the water on foot ; One seeks water for ships to
sail on, Its course having turned into shore land. <…> Its course
having turned into shore land. Shoreland will turn into water, Watercourse
back into shoreland. South wind will combat northwind, Sky will lack the
single wind. <…> The grain is
low-the measure is large, It is measured to overflowing. Re will withdraw
from mankind: Though he will rise at his hour. One will not know when noon
has come; No one will discern his shadow, No face will be dazzled by seeing
[him], No eyes will moisten with water. He will be in the sky like the moon,»
(2006LichtheimM:1.141,142-143). In the «Hearst Medical Papyrus», written under Amenhotep I,
incantation № 170 implies a flood in northern Egypt, possibly associated with
a tsunami resulting from the Minoan eruption (1992GoedickeH:60). The «Tempest
Stele» (early 18th Dynasty) records abnormal weather phenomena likely
observed over several years (2014RitnerRK_MoellerN:14). In the «Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus», compiled under King Apepi (Second Intermediate
Period), an account is given of unusual thunder and rain that began only the
following day (1923PeetTE:129). See note!
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6 And Israel said, Wherefore have ye dealt so
ill with me, as to tell the man that ye have yet another brother? … 8 And Judah said unto Israel his father. Send the lad with me, and we
will arise and go; that we may live, and not die, both we, and thou, as also
our little ones. … 11 And their father Israel said unto them. If
it must be so now, do this : take of the best products of the land in your
vessels, and carry down to the man a present, a little balm, and a little
honey, spices, and lotus, pistachio-nuts and almonds ;
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Onomastic authenticity. The identified structural similarity in the use of the theophoric
element «El» confirms that the biblical text belongs to the authentic Near
Eastern naming tradition of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia The theophoric element «El» in personal names is frequently
encountered in the documents of the Mari archives. An example is a letter
(ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). In a
letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim, 'Yakhsib-El, the
Hanaean' is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Yeskit-El, in a letter (ARM
26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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14 And may God the Almighty give you mercy
before the man, that he may send away to you your other brother, and
Benjamin. And I, if I am to be bereaved, let me be bereaved. 15 And the men
took that present; and twofold money they took in their hand, as also
Benjamin; and they rose up, and went down to Egypt, and stood before Joseph.
16 And when Joseph saw Benjamin with them, he said to the superintendent of
his house. Bring these men into the house, and slay, and make ready; for with
me shall these men dine at noon. … . 29 And he lifted
up his eyes, and saw his brother Benjamin, his mother's son, and said. Is
this your youngest brother, of whom ye spoke unto me? And he said, God be grarcious
unto thee, my son. … 34 And he sent portions
unto them from before him; but Benjamin's portion exceeded the portions of
all of them fivefold. And they drank, and were merry with him.
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Ethno-Onomastic Authenticity. The similarity is manifested
in the use of the name «Benjamin» (Binyamin) as a documented anthroponym and
ethnonym within the Near East during the Middle Bronze Age. |
Mesopotamia The correspondence from the Mari archives mentions the Benjaminite
tribes, their kings, and princes, who lived in proximity to the Bedouins of
Canaan. Specifically, the author of a letter (ARM 26/1 282) reminds
Zimri-Lim: «Two Canaanites must be brought alive to the border and mutilated
there. They must go alive to the Benjaminites and tell them that my Lord has
captured the city of Mishlan by force...» (1988CharpinD:582-583, archibab.fr).
A certain Ishi-Addu, in a letter (ARM 26/1 121), conveys the words of
oracles: «Go to Dur-Yahdun-Lim and verify the prophecies concerning the
inhabitants of Qatna and the Zalmakkum, relating to the Benjaminites. If,
when Zimri-Lim and his troops set out on a campaign... the Benjaminites will
surely form a solid block with their forces and [...] and besiege
Dur-Yahdun-Lim» (1988CharpinD:287-288, archibab.fr). The Mesopotamian archive
of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). |
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20 And they said. Pardon, my lord, we came
down at the first time to buy food : |
Diplomatic Onomastics of Status. The similarity is observed in the strict adherence to Near Eastern
court protocol, where the emphasized self-deprecation of the petitioner
before a high-ranking official served as a mandatory legal and ethical norm
of official dialogue.
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Mesopotamia In the letters from the royal archives of Mari, the
form of address «my lord» was traditionally employed. Ashmada writes to
Zimri-Lim on tablet ARM 34 163: «Speak to my lord: Thus says Ashmat, your
servant. I have listened to the tablet which my lord commanded me to carry.
My lord sent me a message saying: Join the Bedouins...» (1988CharpinD:184, archibab.fr). In another letter (ARM 35 157), we
read: «Speak to my lord: Thus says Yasmah-Addu, your servant. Lakhun-Dagan
has undertaken to do this with my lord...» (1988CharpinD:183, archibab.fr). In a letter (ARM 26/2 290) from
Usur-awassu addressed to Yasmah-Addu, we find: «Speak to my lord: thus says
your servant Usur-awassu. Regarding the work on the statue, my lord wrote the
following to me...» (1988CharpinD_LafontB:26-27). The Mesopotamian archive of
Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:21, archibab.fr). |
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32 And they set on for him by himself, and
for them by themselves; and for the Egyptians, who did eat with him, by
themselves; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with the Hebrews; for
that is an abomination unto the Egyptians.
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Ethico-legal lexical
parallelism. A similarity is observed in
the employment of the category of «abomination» to characterize unacceptable
social or ritual conduct; the term denotes a fundamental violation of order
and ethical norms.
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Egypt The concept of abomination is present in the «Pyramid Texts», where it
predominantly refers to excrement. However, in the tomb of Neith, the wife of
Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE), Utterance No. 271 contains the
specified word used metaphorically: «Speaker, say what is and don’t say what
isn’t, for elision is a god’s abomination.» (2007AllenJP:331). In the myth «The Contendings of Horus and Seth», following the
punishment of the ferryman Anti for his greed, he states: «Gold has become an
abomination to me for my city» (1940МатьеМВ:90).
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32 And they set on for him by himself, and
for them by themselves; and for the Egyptians, who did eat with him, by
themselves; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with the Hebrews; for
that is an abomination unto the Egyptians. 33 And they sat before him, the
first-born according to his prior birth, and the youngest according to his
youth;'' and the men marvelled one at the other. 34 And he sent portions unto
them from before him; but Benjamin's portion exceeded the portions of all of
them fivefold. And they drank, and were merry with him.
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Court etiquette of distribution. A similarity is observed in the description of the prerogative held by
the master of the house or a high-ranking official to personally determine
the size of food portions for guests; this served as a form of public
expression of favor or as a marker of the special status of a specific
invitee at the meal. |
In the «Instruction of
Ptahhotep» (Middle Kingdom), we find: «The noble, sitting before the meal,
divides it according to his desire; he gives to whom he favors.» (1908BattiscombeG:45). |
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32 And they set on for him by himself, and
for them by themselves; and for the Egyptians, who did eat with him, by
themselves; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with the Hebrews; for
that is an abomination unto the Egyptians.
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Ethno-social Isomorphism of
Integration. Confirmation of the historical reality of the Middle Kingdom, a period
when migrants from Asia entered Egypt in large numbers and attained
significant positions within private households. |
Egypt Approximately 20% of the genome of
an Egyptian living between 2855 and 2570 BCE can be traced back to
representatives from the eastern part of the Fertile Crescent, including
Mesopotamia and adjacent regions (2025MorezJacobsA_Girdland-FlinkL). В «The Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we find: «Foreigners
have become people everywhere. <…> Foreigners are skilled in the works
of the Delta.» (2006LichtheimM:1.150,153). A procession of «Asiatics» arriving
in Egypt is captured in a fresco within the tomb of the official Khnumhotep
II, constructed between 1897 and 1878 BCE (2009KamrinJ). Other Egyptologists
date this depiction of a Canaanite caravan to approximately 1895 BCE
(2021BietakM_RensburgA). In the «Prophecies of
Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th
Dynasty): we read:
«All happiness has vanished, The land is bowed down in distress, Owing to
those feeders, Asiatics who roam the land. Foes have risen in the East, Asiatics
have come down to Egypt. <…> One will build the Wall-of-the-Ruler, To
bar Asiatics from entering Egypt;» (2006LichtheimM:1.141,143). In the «Papyrus Brooklyn» (35.1446), compiled during the 12th and 13th
Dynasties, the names of domestic servants are listed, including 48 names of
slaves of Asiatic origin, one of whom was a teacher (1957HornSH:210). |
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32 And they set on for him by himself, and
for them by themselves; and for the Egyptians, who did eat with him, by
themselves; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with the Hebrews; for
that is an abomination unto the Egyptians. |
Sociocultural and epidemiological isolation. The similarity is manifested in the practice of strict demarcation of
everyday contacts and separate dining as forms of ritual and sanitary
protection against potential sources of infection associated with foreigners. |
Egypt On the verso
of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), there are three spells for
«protection» against certain epidemics (Incantations № 1–3). One magical
formula (Incantation № 7) was recited during the disinfection of belongings
«against the plague», while another (Incantation № 6) was used in the event
of accidentally swallowing a flying insect (1930BreastedJH:473–478,482,483; sae.saw-leipzig.de). In these spells, we discern utterances that
accompanied anti-epidemic measures. According to Herodotus (5th century BCE), priests in Egypt were
meticulous about cleanliness: «Every three days the priests shave the hair on
their bodies... Twice a day and twice a night they perform ablutions in cold
water and, in short, observe a multitude of other rites.» Furthermore, all
Egyptians wash their dishes and «wear linen garments, always freshly
laundered» (1972Геродот:2.37). Plutarch (1st–2nd century CE)
discusses the special attitude toward personal hygiene on the part of
Egyptian priests and their attention to water as a substance capable of
negatively affecting humans and animals (1996Плутарх:4-5,75).
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33 And they sat before him, the first-born
according to his prior birth, and the youngest according to his youth; and
the men marvelled one at the other. |
Social prerogative of primogeniture. A similarity is observed in the strict adherence to the hierarchy of
birth seniority as a fundamental principle for the distribution of social
status and inheritance rights.
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Egypt Pyramid of Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE) Recitation
№ 519 «The
Firstborn Thing’s scent is on this Pepi Neferkare; the benben is in Sokar’s
enclosure, the foreleg is in Anubis’s house.» (2007AllenJP:292). In recitation No. 641
(1814a-b) of the «Pyramid Texts», dating from 2350–2175 BCE, it is stated:
«thou art the eldest son of Geb, his first-born, his heir»
(1952MercerSAB:445). Plutarch (1st–2nd century)
recounted the legend that Horus, «whom Isis brought forth as no sensible
image of that world which is conceptual», was brought to trial by Seth «on a
charge of illegitimacy, as not being pure and unalloyed like his father»
(1996Плутарх:54). |
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33 And they sat before him, the first-born
according to his prior birth, and the youngest according to his youth; and
the men marvelled one at the other.
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Social prerogative of primogeniture. A similarity is observed in
the strict adherence to the hierarchy of birth seniority as a fundamental
principle for the distribution of social status and inheritance rights.
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Mesopotamia According to the «Code of
Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE) «§
170. If a man's wife bear
him children and his maid-servant bear him children, and the father during
his life time say to the children which the maid-servant bore him : "My children," and reckon them
with the children of his wife, after the father dies the children of the wife
and the children of the maid-servant shall divide the goods of the father's
house equally. The child of the wife shall have the right of choice at the
division.» (1920HandcockPSP:28). The Nuzi archive contained a
contract (H67), according to which «As for (the concubine's) offspring, Gilimninu
shall [not] send (them) away. Any sons that out of the womb of Gilimninu [to
She]nnima may be bor[n, all the] lands, buildings, [whatever their
description,] to (these) sons are given.» 1928SpeiserEA:32).
Cuneiform tablets from Nuzi date back to the mid-second millennium BCE
(1976SelmanMJ:114).
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34 And he sent portions unto them from before
him; but Benjamin's portion exceeded the portions of all of them fivefold.
And they drank, and were merry with him.
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Sacred Pentad. The similarity is manifested in the
use of the number «five» as a symbol of a divine or privileged portion,
defining a specific ritual and social rank. |
Egypt The Egyptians distinguished specific «epagomenal days» added to the
year. «The five last days of the Egyptian civil calendar, so called because
they are additional to the twelve 30–day months of the calendar. Each of the
five days was celebrated as the birth of a god: Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis,
and Nephthys.» (2007AllenJP:430). The numeral «five», as a sacred number, begins to appear in the
«Pyramid Texts,» dating from 2350–2175 BCE: Utterance № 35 (27d-e) : «Thy
mouth is the mouth of a sucking calf on the day of his birth. Five pellets of
natron of the North, Wadi Natrûn (št-p.t)» (1952MercerSAB:49); Utterance
№ 45 (35a): «Osiris N., take to thyself the white teeth of Horus which equip
thy mouth. Five white cakes.» (1952MercerSAB:51); Utterance № 45 (121b-c): «For
he (N.) is indeed the great bull which smote Kns.t. For to N. indeed belong
the five portions of bread, liquid, cake, in the mansion,»
(1952MercerSAB:86). In Utterance № 173 from the «Coffin Texts» collection (ca. 2134–2040
BCE), we read: «I am the Bull, the Old One of Kenzet, in charge of the five
(sic) portions in this temple; five portions are above with Rec, five
portions are below with Osiris.» (1973FaulknerRO:148); Spell № 181 : «Bull
with curly hair, having five portions in the House of Horus and two portions
in the House of Seth;» (1973FaulknerRO:152).
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Working hypothesis: The famine under Joseph is attributed to the Minoan eruption.
There is an opinion that the mention in the «Hearst Medical Papyrus» of a flood in northern Egypt is linked to a tsunami generated by the eruption of the Santorini volcano (1992GoedickeH). Indeed, paragraph 170 of the manuscript refers to «extracting» the «disease of the Asiatics» from a patient and sealing it, just as «Seth called upon the sea» (sae.saw-leipzig.de). This document has a logical connection to the «Rhind Mathematical Papyrus» through the same divine name and a similar extraordinary event. According to the Bayesian model, the Santorini eruption must have occurred at the end of the 17th century BCE, coinciding with the world of the late Middle Bronze Age Levant and the Second Intermediate Period (1650/1640 – 1540/1530 BCE), when Northern Egypt was controlled by a Canaanite dynasty (2006ManningSW_WildEM). Through the dating of an olive branch buried during the Minoan eruption, it was determined that it occurred at the end of the 17th century BCE with 95% confidence between 1627–1600 BCE, and with 68% probability between 1621–1605 BCE (2006FriedrichWL_TalamoS). A recent reassessment of Mediterranean fossil plant material showed that the volcano was active with 65.8–74.5% confidence in 1619–1596 BCE (2020ManningSW_TegelW). According to the consensus within the «Global Volcanism Program,» Santorini became active in 1610 ± 14 BCE (volcano.si.edu).
In accordance with data from the «GISP2» project, which studies the composition of fossil ice in Greenland, the largest sulfate signal in the Bronze Age, implying volcanic ash, dates to 1695 BCE (1997ClausenHB_LegrandM). However, dating chemical compounds in Greenland ice requires a correction of approximately 80 years for dates around 3600 years ago (counted from 1950), and about 60 years for ages older than 3400 years. Unfortunately, radiocarbon dating (14C) cannot be precisely calibrated based on information extracted from Greenland ice (1998StuiverM_SpurkM; 2004SouthonJ). Based on the aforementioned, we arrive at the idea that an anomalous amount of sulfate precipitated with rainfall in Greenland approximately in 1615 BCE. Our calculation: 1695 – 80 = 1615. We suggest that the food shortage in the Eastern Mediterranean described in the Book of Genesis occurred approximately in 1614 BCE.
The main eruption of Santorini was preceded by a series of explosions with the emission of more than a million cubic meters of ash to the south several days or weeks before the onset of the primary events. This was followed by an energetically saturated discharge of volcanic ash and gases, carried eastward by stratospheric winds. Within a few hours, powerful phreatomagmatic (steam) explosions occurred. After an uncertain interval, the resulting massive tuff cone collapsed within a matter of hours or days. In the final stage, the sea breached the tuff barrier of the crater and flooded the caldera. During this eruption—the largest in the last 10,000 years—between 48 and 86 km³ of magma and lithic fragments were ejected (2019DruittTH_VougioukalakisGE).
Based on the preserved insect remains from the island during that period, it has been established that Santorini «awakened» in the summer after the harvest, specifically in June or early July (2013PanagiotakopuluE_DoumasC). Thus, the initial ash emissions that preserved the insects occurred during this period. The main eruption of volcanic material took place several weeks later, likely in August–early September 1615 BCE. The loud noise associated with these explosions could have been heard in Egypt during the reigns of Pharaohs Ahmose and Apepi I (1923PeetTE; 2014RitnerRK_MoellerN). Apparently, the tsunami resulting from the Minoan eruption is reflected in the «Hearst Medical Papyrus» (1992GoedickeH). The fallout of ash from the Minoan eruption in the eastern Nile Delta, presumably during the 18th Dynasty (1550–1307 BCE), has been proven by field research (1986StanleyDJ_ShengH; 2002BunsonMR).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 43
Chronology
and Dating:
Based on
the correlation of Greenland ice core data (GISP2) and radiocarbon analysis of
artifacts (e.g., the Thera olive branch), the period of large-scale climatic
disruption and subsequent famine in the Eastern Mediterranean is localized
within a narrow window of 1627–1600 BCE (with a peak in sulfate anomalies circa
1615–1614 BCE). This synchronizes the biblical narrative with the end of the
Middle Bronze Age and Egypt’s Second Intermediate Period (Hyksos/15th Dynasty).
Textual
and Historical Parallels:
Descriptions of «food collapse» in the Book of
Genesis resonate deeply with Egyptian literature, such as the «Admonitions of
Ipuwer» and the «Prophecies of Neferti,» where drought, the obscuring of the
sun, and the failure of the Nile inundation are depicted as a fundamental
collapse of the world order. The mention of «abomination» and ritual isolation
in Genesis 43:32 correlates with the protective reactions of Egyptian society
toward social chaos and external threats (the «disease of the Asiatics» in the
Hearst Medical Papyrus). Field research in the Nile Delta confirms the presence
of volcanic ash from the Minoan eruption. The geographical description of «famine
over all the face of the earth» matches the scale of the Santorini catastrophe,
which triggered tsunamis (reflected in the Hearst Papyrus and the Tempest
Stele) and multi-year climatic anomalies leading to acute grain shortages.
Linguistics
and Theology:
The use of
theophoric names and imagery (Seth calling upon the sea; Khnum bestowing the
inundation) in Egyptian sources provides a lexical backdrop for describing
divine intervention in natural cycles, mirroring the biblical concept of the
divinely ordained seven years of famine.
Ethno-Onomastic
Authenticity
The name of
Joseph’s youngest brother (Benjamin) finds a direct and unique parallel in the
name of the powerful tribal confederation DUMU.MEŠ-Ya-mi-na (Binu-Yamina),
documented in the Mari archives (18th century BCE). The structural identity of
the name («son of the right hand/south») and its presence within the Semitic
environment of the Middle Bronze Age indicate that this onomastic unit was an
organic and widespread element in the region long before the formation of the
Israelite kingdom. The Mari texts (from the era of Zimri-Lim) describe the
Benjaminites as an active political force operating in close contact with the
Canaanites and the inhabitants of Qatna. This fully aligns with the
geographical and ethnic context of Genesis 43, where the brothers arrive
specifically from Canaan. The mention of Benjaminite «kings and princes» in
official correspondence confirms the high status of this group within the
Mesopotamian-Levantine arena of the 18th–17th centuries BCE. The presence of
such a specific ethnonym/anthroponym as «Benjamin» in documents dating to the
first half of the 18th century BCE serves as a compelling argument for the
historicity of the original tradition. The text of the Book of Genesis
preserves terminology characteristic of the Middle Bronze Age, making its late
origin without reliance on an ancient, authentic substratum highly improbable.
Archaeology
and Genetics:
Recent
paleogenetic studies (2025) confirm that as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, up
to 20% of the Egyptian genome had Near Eastern origins. This provides a
biological foundation for the large-scale migration of «Asiatics» into Egypt
described in Genesis. The presence of Semites in private households and
high-ranking positions (such as educators and skilled masters) is corroborated
by Papyrus Brooklyn (12th–13th Dynasties), rendering Joseph’s social ascent
historically plausible for the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate
Period. The dichotomy described in Genesis 43:32—simultaneous cohabitation and
ritual isolation during meals—mirrors the sentiments found in Egyptian
literature of the 12th–13th Dynasties. In the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» and the «Prophecies
of Neferti,» Asiatics are depicted as an omnipresent force that triggers both
administrative integration (labor in the Delta) and cultural rejection (the «Wall-of-the-Ruler»
as a barrier against «feeders»). Visual evidence of Canaanite caravans arriving
in Egypt, captured in the tomb of Khnumhotep II (ca. 1895–1878 BCE), records
the historical moment when such contacts became part of official record. The
dating of Papyrus Brooklyn and the Beni Hasan frescoes establishes the lower
chronological boundary for the context of Chapter 43 in the late 19th to early
18th centuries BCE, setting the stage for the Hyksos dominance in the 17th
century BCE.
Linguistics
and Textual Parallels:
In Genesis
43:20, the brothers address the ruler: «Oh my lord (adoni), listen.» This is
not merely a courtesy but a precise reproduction of Near Eastern court
protocol. Identical structures («Speak to my lord: thus says your servant...»)
serve as the standard opening formula in the diplomatic correspondence of the
Mari archives (18th century BCE). The use of this formula in the direct speech
of the Genesis characters underscores their profound integration into the legal
and ethical environment of that era. Synchronization with the Mari archives
(the period of Zimri-Lim and Yasmah-Addu, ca. 1780–1760 BCE) firmly anchors the
communication style of the Chapter 43 protagonists to the first half of the 2nd
millennium BCE. The emphasized self-deprecation («your servant») and the
recognition of absolute authority («my lord») function as mandatory legal
markers in dialogues between petitioners and high-ranking officials. In the
Mari texts, officials and vassals utilize the exact same linguistic
constructions as Joseph's brothers. This testifies to the authenticity of the
description: the author of the Genesis text operates within categories of the
Old Babylonian period, which were relevant specifically in the era preceding
the New Kingdom, further corroborating our dating hypothesis.
Court
Etiquette of Distribution
The
description in Genesis 43:34, where Joseph personally sends portions from his
own table to his guests, finds a direct correspondence in Egyptian didactic
literature. The «Instruction of Ptahhotep» (Middle Kingdom) establishes the
exclusive right of a high-ranking official to divide food «according to his desire.»
This confirms that Joseph’s gesture—singling out Benjamin—was not merely an act
of personal preference but a legitimate exercise of administrative authority,
as codified in the Egyptian courtly manual. The practice of personal food
distribution served as a tool for the public verification of the guests' social
rank. Within the context of the Middle Kingdom (19th–18th centuries BCE), from
which the fundamental instructions originate, this custom underscored the
absolute authority of the master of the house. The Genesis text demonstrates a
flawless understanding of this nuance: Joseph utilizes his prerogative to
legally distinguish his youngest brother without violating general protocol.
The use of such a specific detail of courtly life, characteristic of Middle
Egyptian language and literature, indicates that the author relied on realities
from the era preceding the New Kingdom. This strengthens the argument for
dating the events to the Middle Bronze Age, when the etiquette of the «noble at
the meal» was firmly canonized.
Onomastics
and Linguistics:
The
structural use of the theophoric element «El» in the patriarchal narrative
(including the invocation of El Shaddai in Gen. 43:14) demonstrates profound
onomastic authenticity. Direct parallels found in the Mari archives (18th
century BCE), such as the names Ibal-pi-El, Yakhsib-El, and Yasim-El, confirm
that the anthroponomy of the Book of Genesis is organically embedded in the
linguistic and cultural environment of the Near East during the first half of
the 2nd millennium BCE. This evidence supports an early dating for the source
material of the text.
Ethico-Legal
Lexicon:
The
category of «abomination» (to’ebah / Egyptian bwt), used in Gen. 43:32 to
justify separate dining, finds precise semantic correspondences in Egyptian
tradition. The evolution of the term from a designation for physical impurity in
the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) to a metaphorical expression of «divine
abomination» (denoting elision, falsehood, or greed) by the 6th Dynasty and in
later mythology indicates a stable and long-standing Egyptian cultural code.
Historical
and Textual Context:
The
synchronization of the Mari documents (reign of Zimri-Lim) with Old and Middle
Kingdom Egyptian inscriptions allows for the reconstruction of a shared
regional normative framework. The ethical and ritual prohibitions described in
the Genesis text reflect actual social taboos and legal regulations of the
Egyptian society during the Middle Bronze Age.
Medicine
and Epidemiology:
The refusal
of the Egyptians to dine at the same table with the Hebrews (Gen. 43:32) finds
a profound basis in Egyptian medical papyri. The Edwin Smith Papyrus (ca.
1650–1550 BCE), which is synchronous with the proposed era of Joseph, contains
specific incantations against «plague» and «Asiatic diseases.» The strict
hygiene observed by the Egyptians—later documented by Herodotus and Plutarch
(body shaving, frequent ablutions, laundered linen)—had a pronounced sanitary
and protective character in the 17th century BCE. Social distancing served as a
ritual and biological barrier against infections that, according to the texts,
were frequently associated with foreigners.
Linguistics
and Sacred Numerology:
Benjamin's
fivefold portion (Gen. 43:34) is not a random gesture of hospitality, but an
application of the Egyptian «Sacred Pentad» code. In the Pyramid Texts and
Coffin Texts (24th–21st centuries BCE), the number «five» is consistently
linked to divine rations («five portions of bread») and the status of the king
as the «Great Bull.» The five epagomenal days, dedicated to the births of the
primary deities, further solidify the numeral's semantics of «birth» and «divine
election,» explaining why the youngest brother was distinguished through this
specific number.
Social
Hierarchy and Law:
The
astonishment of the brothers in Genesis 43:33 upon being seated strictly «according
to their seniority» reflects a fundamental Near Eastern principle of the
prerogative of primogeniture. Legal documents from the Mari and Nuzi archives,
as well as the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1760 BCE), confirm a rigid stratification
of inheritance and status: even in cases of property division, the legitimate
wife’s firstborn retained the «right of choice» and priority over the offspring
of concubines.
Textual
and Mythological Parallels:
In Egyptian
tradition, the concept of the firstborn is of a sacral nature. The Pyramid
Texts (6th Dynasty) identify the king as the «firstborn of Geb,» granting him
the legitimate right to inherit the world order. The myth of Horus and Seth, as
noted by Plutarch, underscores that legitimacy of birth and purity of lineage
were central to judicial disputes and the allocation of social rank in Egypt.
General
Conclusion
The
comprehensive analysis of Genesis 43, in comparison with archaeological,
paleoclimatological, medical, and Near Eastern legal data, leads to the
following conclusions:
Environmental
Trigger and Chronology: The described «food system collapse» finds
unprecedented confirmation in geophysical data regarding the Minoan eruption of
Thera (ca. 1615–1614 BCE). Anomalies in Greenland ice cores (GISP2) and sulfate
signals correlate with Egyptian sources (Tempest Stele, Hearst Papyrus) describing
climatic chaos and epidemiological threats (the «disease of the Asiatics»).
Onomastic
and Legal Authenticity: The use of theophoric names with the «El» element
(parallels in the 18th-century BCE Mari archives) and the strict adherence to
primogeniture hierarchy (consistent with the Code of Hammurabi and Nuzi
tablets) confirm that the social fabric of the narrative is not a late literary
reconstruction but reflects the legal reality of the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Cultural-Symbolic
Code: The distinction of Benjamin through the «sacred pentad» (fivefold
portion) and the practice of ritual-sanitary isolation of Egyptians from
foreigners («abomination») find direct analogies in the Pyramid Texts and the
medical protocols of the Edwin Smith Papyrus. This indicates the author's deep
immersion in the specific Egyptian environment of the Hyksos period and the
early 18th Dynasty.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the synthesis of all analyzed factors—from astronomical and climatic (Thera
eruption) to legal and numerological—the following dating for the events and
the core textual layer is established:
Historical
Anchoring of Events: 17th Century BCE (approximately 1614–1600 BCE). This
period corresponds to Egypt's Second Intermediate Period (Hyksos 15th Dynasty),
explaining both the possibility of a Semite's (Joseph) rise at court and the
recorded climatic anomalies.
Textual Status: Genesis Chapter 43 demonstrates exceptional accuracy in depicting the realities of the Middle Bronze Age. Linguistic and ethnographic markers rule out the possibility that this fragment was composed in the 1st millennium BCE without reliance on authentic documents or oral traditions dating directly back to the 1600s BCE.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 21, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 43. About round ligament of femur. March 21, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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