English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 43
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 43 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 43 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 43 Analysis
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Excerpts from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:55-56)
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Type of
Similarity and Justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels,
Analogies, Similarity, Borrowings, Inversions)
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1 And the famine
was sore in the land. 2 And it came to pass, when they had Completely eaten
up the provisions which they had brought out of Egypt, that their father said
unto them. Go again, buy us a little food. |
Description of the Food Collapse The similarity is observed in the detailed recording of the social
consequences of a large-scale food deficit. In the context of the biblical
narrative, the famine could only have been caused by climate change in the
Eastern Mediterranean region. |
Egypt In contrast to the splendor of festivals, Egyptian literature also
preserves harrowing accounts of ecological collapse. In the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we find: «Lo, Hapy
inundates and none plow for him, All say, "We don't know what has
happened in the land." Lo, women are barren, none conceive, Khnum does
not fashion because of the state of the land. <…> Lo, the great hunger
and suffer, <…> Lo, [one eats] herbs, washed down with water, Birds
find neither fruit nor herbs, One takes --- from the mouth of pigs, No face
is bright ... hunger.» (2006LichtheimM:1.151,154–155). Similar apocalyptic themes appear in other Middle Kingdom texts. In the «Prophecies of Neferti» (reign of
Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty) it is stated: «None speak, none shed tears:
"How fares this land!" The sundisk, covered, shines not for people
to see, One cannot live when clouds conceal, All are numbs from lack of it. I
shall describe what is before me, I do not foretell what does not come: Dry
is the river of Egypt, One crosses the water on foot ; One seeks water for
ships to sail on, Its course having turned into shore land. <…> Its
course having turned into shore land. Shoreland will turn into water, Watercourse
back into shoreland. South wind will combat northwind, Sky will lack the
single wind. <…> The grain is low-the measure is large, It is measured
to overflowing. Re will withdraw from mankind: Though he will rise at his
hour. One will not know when noon has come; No one will discern his shadow,
No face will be dazzled by seeing [him], No eyes will moisten with water. He
will be in the sky like the moon,» (2006LichtheimM:1.141,142–143). Beyond literary
tropes, several historical documents record actual instances of abnormal
weather. In the «Hearst Medical Papyrus», written under Amenhotep I,
incantation № 170 implies a flood in northern Egypt, possibly associated with
a tsunami resulting from the Minoan eruption (1992GoedickeH:60). Furthermore,
the «Tempest Stele» (early 18th Dynasty) records abnormal weather phenomena
likely observed over several years (2014RitnerRK_MoellerN:14). Finally, in
the «Rhind Mathematical Papyrus», compiled under King Apepi (Second
Intermediate Period), an account is given of unusual thunder and rain that
occurred during a specific period (1923PeetTE:129). The «Famine Stela»
testifies that during a period of social distress, Pharaoh Djoser (3rd
Dynasty) ordered immediate sacrifices to be brought to Khnum. That same
night, Khnum appeared to him in a dream. The Pharaoh swore a sacred oath to
the god that his altars would henceforth never be impoverished (2004РакИВ:158). This inscription, apparently made during the
Ptolemaic era, records a period of food shortages. In the «Instruction
Addressed to King Merikare» (Middle Kingdom) speaks of prudent generosity in
times of famine: «They come to you with tribute, with gifts: I have acted
like the forefathers: If one has no grain to give, Be kind, since they are
humble before you. Be sated with your bread, your beer, Granite comes to you
unhindered (2006LichtheimM:1.102). See note!
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6 And Israel
said, Wherefore have ye dealt so ill with me, as to tell the man that ye have
yet another brother? … 8 And Judah said unto Israel his father. Send the lad
with me, and we will arise and go; that we may live, and not die, both we,
and thou, as also our little ones. … 11 And their father Israel said unto
them. If it must be so now, do this : take of the best products of the land
in your vessels, and carry down to the man a present, a little balm, and a
little honey, spices, and lotus, pistachio-nuts and almonds ;
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Onomastic Authenticity The identified structural
similarity in the use of the theophoric element «El» confirms that the
biblical text belongs to the authentic Near Eastern naming tradition of the
early 2nd millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia The theophoric
element «El» in personal names is frequently encountered in the documents of
the Mari archives. An example is a letter (ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his
lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). Furthermore, in a letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed
to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Hanaean» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Additionally, Yeskit-El, in a
letter (ARM 26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian
source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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14 And may God
the Almighty give you mercy before the man, that he may send away to you your
other brother, and Benjamin. And I, if I am to be bereaved, let me be
bereaved. 15 And the men took that present; and twofold money they took in
their hand, as also Benjamin; and they rose up, and went down to Egypt, and
stood before Joseph. 16 And when Joseph saw Benjamin with them, he said to
the superintendent of his house. Bring these men into the house, and slay,
and make ready; for with me shall these men dine at noon. … . 29 And he
lifted up his eyes, and saw his brother Benjamin, his mother's son, and said.
Is this your youngest brother, of whom ye spoke unto me? And he said, God be
grarcious unto thee, my son. … 34 And he sent portions unto them from before
him; but Benjamin's portion exceeded the portions of all of them fivefold.
And they drank, and were merry with him.
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Ethno-Onomastic Authenticity The similarity is manifested in the use of the name «Benjamin»
(Binyamin) as a documented anthroponym and ethnonym within the Near East
during the Middle Bronze Age. |
Mesopotamia As documented in the correspondence from the Mari archives, mentions the
Benjaminite tribes, their kings, and princes, who lived in proximity to the
Bedouins of Canaan. Specifically, the author of a letter (ARM 26/1 282)
reminds Zimri-Lim: «Two Canaanites must be brought alive to the border and
mutilated there. They must go alive to the Benjaminites and tell them that my
Lord has captured the city of Mishlan by force...» (1988CharpinD:582–583, archibab.fr). Furthermore, a certain Ishi-Addu, in a letter (ARM
26/1 121), conveys the words of oracles: «Go to Dur-Yahdun-Lim and verify the
prophecies concerning the inhabitants of Qatna and the Zalmakkum, relating to
the Benjaminites. If, when Zimri-Lim and his troops set out on a campaign...
the Benjaminites will surely form a solid block with their forces and [...]
and besiege Dur-Yahdun-Lim» (1988CharpinD:287–288, archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). |
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20 And they said.
Pardon, my lord, we came down at the first time to buy food : |
Diplomatic Onomastics
of Status The similarity is
observed in the strict adherence to Near Eastern court protocol, where the
emphasized self-deprecation of the petitioner before a high-ranking official
served as a mandatory legal and ethical norm of official dialogue.
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Mesopotamia In the letters from the royal
archives of Mari, the form of address «my lord» was traditionally employed.
Ashmada writes to Zimri-Lim on tablet ARM 34 163: «Speak to my lord: Thus
says Ashmat, your servant. I have listened to the tablet which my lord commanded
me to carry. My lord sent me a message saying: Join the Bedouins...»
(1988CharpinD:184, archibab.fr). In another
letter (ARM 35 157), we read: «Speak to my lord: Thus says Yasmah-Addu, your
servant. Lakhun-Dagan has undertaken to do this with my lord...»
(1988CharpinD:183, archibab.fr). In a letter
(ARM 26/2 290) from Usur-awassu addressed to Yasmah-Addu, we find: «Speak to
my lord: thus says your servant Usur-awassu. Regarding the work on the
statue, my lord wrote the following to me...» (1988CharpinD_LafontB:26–27).
The Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century
BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:21, archibab.fr).
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28 And they
answered. Thy servant, our father, is in good health, he is yet alive. And
they bowed down their heads, and prostrated themselves.
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Diplomatic Identity The established structural
similarity of rhetorical formulas «your servant» confirms the use in the Book of Genesis of an authentic
protocol of interstate and social correspondence from the Middle Bronze Age.
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Mesopotamia The standard
opening of vassal correspondence from the Mari archives contains the formula
«your servant». For instance, a
letter from Kibri-Dagan to his lord Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 210) states: «Say to
my Lord: Thus (spoke) Kibri-Dagan, your servant.» (1988CharpinD:439–440). Likewise, a letter from Askudum and
Rishiya to their lord Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 11) reports: «Say to our Lord: Thus speak Askudum and
Rishiya, your servants.» (1988CharpinD:107–109). Similarly, a letter from Shibtu to her lord Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 214) records: «Say to my Lord: Thus
speaks Shibtu, your servant: In the temple of Annunitum in the city of
Ahatum, the servant of Dagan-Malik prophesied and said the following…»
(1988CharpinD:442–443). The Mari
archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). |
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32 And they set
on for him by himself, and for them by themselves; and for the Egyptians, who
did eat with him, by themselves; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with
the Hebrews; for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians.
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Ethico-Legal Lexical Parallelism A similarity is observed in the employment of the category of
«abomination» to characterize unacceptable social or ritual conduct; the term
denotes a fundamental violation of order and ethical norms.
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Egypt The concept of
abomination is present in the «Pyramid Texts», where it predominantly refers
to excrement. However, in the tomb of Neith, the wife of Pepi II (6th
Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE), Utterance № 271 contains the specified word used
metaphorically: «Speaker, say what is and don’t say what isn’t, for elision
is a god’s abomination.» (2007AllenJP:331). Furthermore, in the myth «The Contendings of Horus
and Seth», following the punishment of the ferryman Anti for his greed, he
states: «Gold has become an abomination to me for my city» (1940МатьеМВ:90).
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32 And they set
on for him by himself, and for them by themselves; and for the Egyptians, who
did eat with him, by themselves; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with
the Hebrews; for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians. 33 And they sat
before him, the first-born according to his prior birth, and the youngest
according to his youth;'' and the men marvelled one at the other. 34 And he
sent portions unto them from before him; but Benjamin's portion exceeded the
portions of all of them fivefold. And they drank, and were merry with him.
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Court Etiquette of Distribution A similarity is observed in the description of the prerogative held by
the master of the house or a high-ranking official to personally determine
the size of food portions for guests; this served as a form of public
expression of favor or as a marker of the special status of a specific
invitee at the meal.
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Egypt In the
«Instruction of Ptahhotep» (6th Dynasty), we find: «The noble, sitting before
the meal, divides it according to his desire; he gives to whom he favors.»
(1908BattiscombeG:45). |
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32 And they set
on for him by himself, and for them by themselves; and for the Egyptians, who
did eat with him, by themselves; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with
the Hebrews; for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians.
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Ethno-Social Isomorphism of Integration Confirmation of the historical reality of the Middle Kingdom, a period
when migrants from Asia entered Egypt in large numbers and attained
significant positions within private households.
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Egypt Evidence suggests that approximately 20% of the genome of an Egyptian living between 2855 and 2570 BCE can be traced back to representatives from the eastern part of the Fertile Crescent, including Mesopotamia and adjacent regions (2025MorezJacobsA_Girdland-FlinkL). This is consistent with the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), where we find: «Foreigners have become people everywhere. <…> Foreigners are skilled in the works of the Delta.» (2006LichtheimM:1.150,153). In addition, , a procession of «Asiatics» arriving in Egypt is captured in a fresco within the tomb of the official Khnumhotep II, constructed between 1897 and 1878 BCE (2009KamrinJ). Other Egyptologists date this depiction of a Canaanite caravan to approximately 1895 BCE (2021BietakM_RensburgA). Regarding the perception of these groups, the «Prophecies of Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty) state: «All happiness has vanished, The land is bowed down in distress, Owing to those feeders, Asiatics who roam the land. Foes have risen in the East, Asiatics have come down to Egypt. <…> One will build the Wall-of-the-Ruler, To bar Asiatics from entering Egypt;» (2006LichtheimM:1.141,143). Finally, in the «Papyrus Brooklyn» (35.1446), compiled during the 12th and 13th Dynasties, the names of domestic servants are listed, including 48 names of slaves of Asiatic origin, one of whom was a teacher (1957HornSH:210). |
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32 And they set
on for him by himself, and for them by themselves; and for the Egyptians, who
did eat with him, by themselves; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with
the Hebrews; for that is an abomination unto the Egyptians. |
Sociocultural and Epidemiological Isolation The similarity is manifested in the practice of strict demareation of
everyday contacts and separate dining as forms of ritual and sanitary
protection against potential sources of infection associated with foreigners. |
Egypt On the verso of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), there are
three spells for «protection» against certain epidemics (Incantations № 1–3).
For example, one magical formula
(Incantation № 7) was recited during the disinfection of belongings «against
the plague», while another (Incantation № 6) was used in the event of
accidentally swallowing a flying insect (1930BreastedJH:473–478,482,483; sae.saw-leipzig.de). Through these spells, we discern
utterances that accompanied anti-epidemic measures. Later accounts, such as those by
Herodotus (5th century BCE), record that priests in Egypt were meticulous about cleanliness: «Every
three days the priests shave the hair on their bodies... Twice a day and
twice a night they perform ablutions in cold water and, in short, observe a
multitude of other rites.» Furthermore, all Egyptians wash their dishes and
«wear linen garments, always freshly laundered» (1972Геродот:2.37). In a similar
vein, Plutarch (1st–2nd century CE) discusses the special attitude toward
personal hygiene on the part of Egyptian priests and their attention to water
as a substance capable of negatively affecting humans and animals (1996Плутарх:4–5,75).
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33 And they sat
before him, the first-born according to his prior birth, and the youngest
according to his youth; and the men marvelled one at the other. |
Social Prerogative of Primogeniture A similarity is observed in the strict adherence to the hierarchy of
birth seniority as a fundamental principle for the distribution of social
status and inheritance rights.
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Egypt In the Pyramid of Pepi II (6th Dynasty,
ca. 2246–2152 BCE), Recitation № 519 states: «The Firstborn Thing’s scent is on this Pepi
Neferkare; the benben is in Sokar’s enclosure, the foreleg is in Anubis’s
house.» (2007AllenJP:292). Similarly, in recitation № 641 (1814a-b) of the «Pyramid Texts»,
dating from 2350–2175 BCE, it is stated: «thou art the eldest son of Geb, his
first-born, his heir» (1952MercerSAB:445). Later, Plutarch (1st–2nd century CE) recounted the legend that Horus, «whom
Isis brought forth as no sensible image of that world which is conceptual»,
was brought to trial by Seth «on a charge of illegitimacy, as not being pure
and unalloyed like his father» (1996Плутарх:54). |
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33 And they sat
before him, the first-born according to his prior birth, and the youngest
according to his youth; and the men marvelled one at the other.
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Social Prerogative of Primogeniture A similarity is observed in the strict adherence to the hierarchy of
birth seniority as a fundamental principle for the distribution of social
status and inheritance rights.
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Mesopotamia According to the
«Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE),
§ 170 states: «If a man's wife bear him children and his maid-servant bear him children,
and the father during his life time say to the children which the
maid-servant bore him : "My children," and reckon them with the
children of his wife, after the father dies the children of the wife and the
children of the maid-servant shall divide the goods of the father's house
equally. The child of the wife shall have the right of choice at the
division.» (1920HandcockPSP:28). In a similar vein, the Nuzi archive contained a contract (H67),
according to which «As for (the concubine's) offspring, Gilimninu shall
[not] send (them) away. Any sons that out of the womb of Gilimninu [to
She]nnima may be bor[n, all the] lands, buildings, [whatever their description,]
to (these) sons are given.»
(1928SpeiserEA:32). The
cuneiform tablets from Nuzi date back to the mid-second millennium BCE
(1976SelmanMJ:114).
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34 And he sent
portions unto them from before him; but Benjamin's portion exceeded the
portions of all of them fivefold. And they drank, and were merry with him.
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Sacred Pentad The similarity is manifested in the
use of the number «five» as a symbol of a divine or privileged portion,
defining a specific ritual and social rank. |
Egypt In Egyptian calendrical
and religious traditions, the Egyptians distinguished specific «epagomenal
days» added to the year. These are defined as: «The five last days of the
Egyptian civil calendar, so called because they are additional to the twelve
30–day months of the calendar. Each of the five days was celebrated as the
birth of a god: Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis, and Nephthys» (2007AllenJP:430). The numeral
«five», as a sacred number, begins to appear in the «Pyramid Texts» (dating
from 2350–2175 BCE). For instance, Utterance № 35 (27d-e) states: «Thy mouth
is the mouth of a sucking calf on the day of his birth. Five pellets of
natron of the North, Wadi Natrûn (št-p.t)» (1952MercerSAB:49). Similarly,
Utterance № 45 (35a) records: «Osiris N., take to thyself the white teeth of
Horus which equip thy mouth. Five white cakes» (1952MercerSAB:51). In another
instance, Utterance № 45 (121b-c) reads: «For he (N.) is indeed the great
bull which smote Kns.t. For to N. indeed belong the five portions of bread,
liquid, cake, in the mansion» (1952MercerSAB:86). This numerical
significance persisted in later ritual texts. In Utterance № 173 from the
«Coffin Texts» collection (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), we read: «I am the Bull, the
Old One of Kenzet, in charge of the five (sic) portions in this temple; five
portions are above with Re, five portions are below with Osiris»
(1973FaulknerRO:148). Additionally, Spell № 181 mentions: «Bull with curly
hair, having five portions in the House of Horus and two portions in the
House of Seth» (1973FaulknerRO:152).
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Working
Hypothesis: The Famine Under Joseph and the Minoan Eruption
There
is a scholarly opinion that the mention in the «Hearst Medical Papyrus» of a flood in
northern Egypt is linked to a tsunami generated by the eruption of the
Santorini volcano (1992GoedickeH). Indeed, paragraph 170 of the manuscript
refers to «extracting» the «disease of the Asiatics» from a patient and sealing
it, just as «Seth called upon the sea» (sae.saw-leipzig.de). This document has a logical connection to
the «Rhind Mathematical Papyrus» through the same divine name and a similar
extraordinary event. According to the Bayesian model, the Santorini eruption
must have occurred at the end of the 17th century BCE, coinciding with the
world of the late Middle Bronze Age Levant and the Second Intermediate Period
(1650/1640–1540/1530 BCE), when Northern Egypt was controlled by a Canaanite
dynasty (2006ManningSW_WildEM). Through the dating of an olive branch buried
during the Minoan eruption, it was determined that it occurred at the end of
the 17th century BCE with 95% confidence between 1627–1600 BCE, and with 68%
probability between 1621–1605 BCE (2006FriedrichWL_TalamoS). A recent
reassessment of Mediterranean fossil plant material showed that the volcano was
active with 65.8–74.5% confidence in 1619–1596 BCE (2020ManningSW_TegelW). Volcanological
Consensus: The «Global Volcanism Program» estimates that Santorini became
active in 1610±14 BCE (volcano.si.edu).
According to data from the «GISP2»
project, which examines the composition of fossil ice in Greenland, the most
significant sulfate signal of the Bronze Age — indicating major volcanic
activity — is dated to 1695 BCE (1997ClausenHB_LegrandM).However, the dating of
chemical compounds in Greenland ice cores requires specific adjustments: A
correction of approximately 80 years is necessary for dates around 3,600 years
ago (calculated from 1950).A correction of about 60 years is required for ages
exceeding 3,400 years. Unfortunately, radiocarbon dating (14C)
cannot be precisely calibrated solely based on information extracted from
Greenland ice (1998StuiverM_SpurkM; 2004SouthonJ). Based on these adjustments,
we conclude that an anomalous amount of sulfate precipitated fall in Greenland
approximately in 1615 BCE. Our calculation: 1695 - 80 = 1615 BCE. Following
this timeline, we suggest that the food shortage in the Eastern Mediterranean
described in the Book of Genesis occurred shortly thereafter, approximately in
1614 BCE.
The main eruption of Santorini was
preceded by a series of explosions with the emission of more than a million
cubic meters of ash to the south several days or weeks before the onset of the
primary events. This was followed by an energetically saturated discharge of
volcanic ash and gases, carried eastward by stratospheric winds. Within a few
hours, powerful phreatomagmatic (steam) explosions occurred. After an uncertain
interval, the resulting massive tuff cone collapsed within a matter of hours or
days. In the final stage, the sea breached the tuff barrier of the crater and
flooded the caldera. During this eruption—the largest in the last 10000
years—between 48 and 86 km³ of magma and lithic fragments were ejected
(2019DruittTH_VougioukalakisGE).
Based on the preserved insect
remains from the island during that period, it has been established that
Santorini «awakened» in the summer after the harvest, specifically in June or
early July (2013PanagiotakopuluE_DoumasC). Thus, the initial ash emissions that
preserved the insects occurred during this period. The main eruption of
volcanic material took place several weeks later, likely in August–early
September 1615 BCE. The loud noise associated with these explosions could have
been heard in Egypt during the reigns of Pharaohs Ahmose and Apepi I
(1923PeetTE; 2014RitnerRK_MoellerN). Apparently, the tsunami resulting from the
Minoan eruption is reflected in the «Hearst Medical Papyrus» (1992GoedickeH).
The fallout of ash from the Minoan eruption in the eastern Nile Delta,
presumably during the 18th Dynasty (1550–1307 BCE), has been proven by field
research (1986StanleyDJ_ShengH; 2002BunsonMR).
At the end of August 1883 CE, a
comparable but slightly less powerful eruption of the Krakatoa volcano
occurred, which was assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of «6». At that
time, «only» about 18 km³ of material was ejected from the crater (2003BeyA).
Throughout 1884 and 1885, anomalous cooling was recorded practically worldwide
(2009SchallerN_OnnimannS). Specifically, during these years in the south of the
Iberian Peninsula, the duration of daily sunshine was notably lower than
average climatological values, which is attributed to sulfate aerosol particles
in the atmosphere and an increase in cloud cover (2020ObregónMA_VaqueroJM). In
June 1991 CE, the largest recent VEI–6 eruption took place at Mount Pinatubo
(Philippines). It expelled 8.4–10.4 km³ of material, forming a significant
volcanic cloud (2004GuoS_WatsonIM). Aerosol particles remained suspended in the
atmosphere for several years, causing a maximum cooling—averaged across four
continents—of approximately 0.5°C in September–November of 1992 and 1993
(2002YangF_SchlesingerME).
The synthesis of paleoclimatological
data and ancient Egyptian literature suggests that the «seven years of famine»
may be a literary framing of a real, multi-phase ecological catastrophe. Modern
analogues, such as the eruptions of Krakatoa (1883) and Mount Pinatubo (1991),
demonstrate that even less powerful events (VEI–6) can cause global cooling of
approximately 0.5°C and a significant reduction in daily sunshine due to
sulfate aerosols and increased cloud cover (2002YangF_SchlesingerME; 2020ObregónMA_VaqueroJM).
Given that the Minoan eruption was exponentially larger (ejecting up to 86 km³
of material), the resulting «volcanic winter» would have been devastating for
agriculture, particularly in Northern Africa and the Middle East.
The «Prophecies of Neferti» provide
a chillingly accurate description of these physical phenomena: «The sundisk,
covered, shines not for people to see... Re will withdraw from mankind... He
will be in the sky like the moon» (2006LichtheimM). This «dimming» of the sun,
coupled with the observation that «South wind will combat northwind», indicates
a decrease in solar insolation and a large-scale disruption of atmospheric
circulation, which would inevitably lead to a decrease in the water level
during the Nile floods.
While the Book of Genesis specifies
a period of seven years, it is important to note that this number may serve a
symbolic or mnemonic function in didactic literature. In reality, volcanic ash
and stratospheric aerosols circulate for varying durations — sometimes for only
two or three years of acute cooling, depending on the eruption's magnitude and
sulfur content. Furthermore, while the Minoan event is a primary candidate for
the Joseph narrative's backdrop, the descriptions in the «Prophecies of
Neferti» (12th Dynasty) suggest that Egyptians had already encountered and
recorded similar volcanic-induced crises earlier in the Middle Kingdom.
Thus, the Joseph story likely draws upon a well-established Egyptian «memory» of how such global catastrophes manifest: beginning with toxic ash, acid rain, deteriorating air quality, global cooling, and drought, through decreased sunlight due to «darkened» skies, to the long-term collapse of hydrological and agricultural systems, diseases affecting humans and domestic animals, and ultimately leading to large-scale social upheaval. We believe that the authors of the Book of Genesis were aware of the Minoan catastrophe, its long-term global consequences, and the specific two-phase nature of the resulting food shortage. This knowledge was masterfully repurposed artistically and made the central axis of the story of Joseph in Egypt.
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 43
Chronology
and Dating:
Based on
the correlation of Greenland ice core data (GISP2) and radiocarbon analysis of
artifacts (e.g., the Thera olive branch), the period of large-scale climatic
disruption and subsequent famine in the Eastern Mediterranean is localized
within a narrow window of 1627–1600 BCE (with a peak in sulfate anomalies circa
1615–1614 BCE). This synchronizes the biblical narrative with the end of the
Middle Bronze Age and Egypt’s Second Intermediate Period (Hyksos/15th Dynasty).
Textual
and Historical Parallels:
Descriptions of «food collapse» in the Book of
Genesis resonate deeply with Egyptian literature, such as the «Admonitions of
Ipuwer» and the «Prophecies of Neferti,» where drought, the obscuring of the
sun, and the failure of the Nile inundation are depicted as a fundamental
collapse of the world order. The mention of «abomination» and ritual isolation
in Genesis 43:32 correlates with the protective reactions of Egyptian society
toward social chaos and external threats (the «disease of the Asiatics» in the
Hearst Medical Papyrus). Field research in the Nile Delta confirms the presence
of volcanic ash from the Minoan eruption. The geographical description of «famine
over all the face of the earth» matches the scale of the Santorini catastrophe,
which triggered tsunamis (reflected in the Hearst Papyrus and the Tempest
Stele) and multi-year climatic anomalies leading to acute grain shortages.
Linguistics
and Theology:
The use of
theophoric names and imagery (Seth calling upon the sea; Khnum bestowing the
inundation) in Egyptian sources provides a lexical backdrop for describing
divine intervention in natural cycles, mirroring the biblical concept of the
divinely ordained seven years of famine.
Ethno-Onomastic
Authenticity
The name of
Joseph’s youngest brother (Benjamin) finds a direct and unique parallel in the
name of the powerful tribal confederation DUMU.MEŠ-Ya-mi-na (Binu-Yamina),
documented in the Mari archives (18th century BCE). The structural identity of
the name («son of the right hand/south») and its presence within the Semitic
environment of the Middle Bronze Age indicate that this onomastic unit was an
organic and widespread element in the region long before the formation of the
Israelite kingdom. The Mari texts (from the era of Zimri-Lim) describe the
Benjaminites as an active political force operating in close contact with the
Canaanites and the inhabitants of Qatna. This fully aligns with the
geographical and ethnic context of Genesis 43, where the brothers arrive
specifically from Canaan. The mention of Benjaminite «kings and princes» in
official correspondence confirms the high status of this group within the
Mesopotamian-Levantine arena of the 18th–17th centuries BCE. The presence of
such a specific ethnonym/anthroponym as «Benjamin» in documents dating to the
first half of the 18th century BCE serves as a compelling argument for the
historicity of the original tradition. The text of the Book of Genesis
preserves terminology characteristic of the Middle Bronze Age, making its late
origin without reliance on an ancient, authentic substratum highly improbable.
Archaeology
and Genetics:
Recent
paleogenetic studies (2025) confirm that as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, up
to 20% of the Egyptian genome had Near Eastern origins. This provides a
biological foundation for the large-scale migration of «Asiatics» into Egypt
described in Genesis. The presence of Semites in private households and
high-ranking positions (such as educators and skilled masters) is corroborated
by Papyrus Brooklyn (12th–13th Dynasties), rendering Joseph’s social ascent
historically plausible for the Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate
Period. The dichotomy described in Genesis 43:32—simultaneous cohabitation and
ritual isolation during meals—mirrors the sentiments found in Egyptian
literature of the 12th–13th Dynasties. In the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» and the «Prophecies
of Neferti,» Asiatics are depicted as an omnipresent force that triggers both
administrative integration (labor in the Delta) and cultural rejection (the «Wall-of-the-Ruler»
as a barrier against «feeders»). Visual evidence of Canaanite caravans arriving
in Egypt, captured in the tomb of Khnumhotep II (ca. 1895–1878 BCE), records
the historical moment when such contacts became part of official record. The
dating of Papyrus Brooklyn and the Beni Hasan frescoes establishes the lower
chronological boundary for the context of Chapter 43 in the late 19th to early
18th centuries BCE, setting the stage for the Hyksos dominance in the 17th
century BCE.
Linguistics
and Textual Parallels:
In Genesis
43:20, the brothers address the ruler: «Oh my lord (adoni), listen.» This is
not merely a courtesy but a precise reproduction of Near Eastern court
protocol. Identical structures («Speak to my lord: thus says your servant...»)
serve as the standard opening formula in the diplomatic correspondence of the
Mari archives (18th century BCE). The use of this formula in the direct speech
of the Genesis characters underscores their profound integration into the legal
and ethical environment of that era. Synchronization with the Mari archives
(the period of Zimri-Lim and Yasmah-Addu, ca. 1780–1760 BCE) firmly anchors the
communication style of the Chapter 43 protagonists to the first half of the 2nd
millennium BCE. The emphasized self-deprecation («your servant») and the
recognition of absolute authority («my lord») function as mandatory legal
markers in dialogues between petitioners and high-ranking officials. In the
Mari texts, officials and vassals utilize the exact same linguistic
constructions as Joseph's brothers. This testifies to the authenticity of the
description: the author of the Genesis text operates within categories of the
Old Babylonian period, which were relevant specifically in the era preceding
the New Kingdom, further corroborating our dating hypothesis.
Court
Etiquette of Distribution
The
description in Genesis 43:34, where Joseph personally sends portions from his
own table to his guests, finds a direct correspondence in Egyptian didactic
literature. The «Instruction of Ptahhotep» (Middle Kingdom) establishes the
exclusive right of a high-ranking official to divide food «according to his desire.»
This confirms that Joseph’s gesture—singling out Benjamin—was not merely an act
of personal preference but a legitimate exercise of administrative authority,
as codified in the Egyptian courtly manual. The practice of personal food
distribution served as a tool for the public verification of the guests' social
rank. Within the context of the Middle Kingdom (19th–18th centuries BCE), from
which the fundamental instructions originate, this custom underscored the
absolute authority of the master of the house. The Genesis text demonstrates a
flawless understanding of this nuance: Joseph utilizes his prerogative to
legally distinguish his youngest brother without violating general protocol.
The use of such a specific detail of courtly life, characteristic of Middle
Egyptian language and literature, indicates that the author relied on realities
from the era preceding the New Kingdom. This strengthens the argument for
dating the events to the Middle Bronze Age, when the etiquette of the «noble at
the meal» was firmly canonized.
Onomastics
and Linguistics:
The
structural use of the theophoric element «El» in the patriarchal narrative
(including the invocation of El Shaddai in Gen. 43:14) demonstrates profound
onomastic authenticity. Direct parallels found in the Mari archives (18th
century BCE), such as the names Ibal-pi-El, Yakhsib-El, and Yasim-El, confirm
that the anthroponomy of the Book of Genesis is organically embedded in the
linguistic and cultural environment of the Near East during the first half of
the 2nd millennium BCE. This evidence supports an early dating for the source
material of the text.
Ethico-Legal
Lexicon:
The
category of «abomination» (to’ebah / Egyptian bwt), used in Gen. 43:32 to
justify separate dining, finds precise semantic correspondences in Egyptian
tradition. The evolution of the term from a designation for physical impurity in
the Pyramid Texts (ca. 2350–2175 BCE) to a metaphorical expression of «divine
abomination» (denoting elision, falsehood, or greed) by the 6th Dynasty and in
later mythology indicates a stable and long-standing Egyptian cultural code.
Historical
and Textual Context:
The
synchronization of the Mari documents (reign of Zimri-Lim) with Old and Middle
Kingdom Egyptian inscriptions allows for the reconstruction of a shared
regional normative framework. The ethical and ritual prohibitions described in
the Genesis text reflect actual social taboos and legal regulations of the
Egyptian society during the Middle Bronze Age.
Medicine
and Epidemiology:
The refusal
of the Egyptians to dine at the same table with the Hebrews (Gen. 43:32) finds
a profound basis in Egyptian medical papyri. The Edwin Smith Papyrus (ca.
1650–1550 BCE), which is synchronous with the proposed era of Joseph, contains
specific incantations against «plague» and «Asiatic diseases.» The strict
hygiene observed by the Egyptians—later documented by Herodotus and Plutarch
(body shaving, frequent ablutions, laundered linen)—had a pronounced sanitary
and protective character in the 17th century BCE. Social distancing served as a
ritual and biological barrier against infections that, according to the texts,
were frequently associated with foreigners.
Linguistics
and Sacred Numerology:
Benjamin's
fivefold portion (Gen. 43:34) is not a random gesture of hospitality, but an
application of the Egyptian «Sacred Pentad» code. In the Pyramid Texts and
Coffin Texts (24th–21st centuries BCE), the number «five» is consistently
linked to divine rations («five portions of bread») and the status of the king
as the «Great Bull.» The five epagomenal days, dedicated to the births of the
primary deities, further solidify the numeral's semantics of «birth» and «divine
election,» explaining why the youngest brother was distinguished through this
specific number.
Social
Hierarchy and Law:
The
astonishment of the brothers in Genesis 43:33 upon being seated strictly «according
to their seniority» reflects a fundamental Near Eastern principle of the
prerogative of primogeniture. Legal documents from the Mari and Nuzi archives,
as well as the Code of Hammurabi (ca. 1760 BCE), confirm a rigid stratification
of inheritance and status: even in cases of property division, the legitimate
wife’s firstborn retained the «right of choice» and priority over the offspring
of concubines.
Textual
and Mythological Parallels:
In Egyptian
tradition, the concept of the firstborn is of a sacral nature. The Pyramid
Texts (6th Dynasty) identify the king as the «firstborn of Geb,» granting him
the legitimate right to inherit the world order. The myth of Horus and Seth, as
noted by Plutarch, underscores that legitimacy of birth and purity of lineage
were central to judicial disputes and the allocation of social rank in Egypt.
General
Conclusion
The
comprehensive analysis of Genesis 43, in comparison with archaeological,
paleoclimatological, medical, and Near Eastern legal data, leads to the
following conclusions:
Environmental
Trigger and Chronology: The described «food system collapse» finds
unprecedented confirmation in geophysical data regarding the Minoan eruption of
Thera (ca. 1615–1614 BCE). Anomalies in Greenland ice cores (GISP2) and sulfate
signals correlate with Egyptian sources (Tempest Stele, Hearst Papyrus) describing
climatic chaos and epidemiological threats (the «disease of the Asiatics»).
Onomastic
and Legal Authenticity: The use of theophoric names with the «El» element
(parallels in the 18th-century BCE Mari archives) and the strict adherence to
primogeniture hierarchy (consistent with the Code of Hammurabi and Nuzi
tablets) confirm that the social fabric of the narrative is not a late literary
reconstruction but reflects the legal reality of the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Cultural-Symbolic
Code: The distinction of Benjamin through the «sacred pentad» (fivefold
portion) and the practice of ritual-sanitary isolation of Egyptians from
foreigners («abomination») find direct analogies in the Pyramid Texts and the
medical protocols of the Edwin Smith Papyrus. This indicates the author's deep
immersion in the specific Egyptian environment of the Hyksos period and the
early 18th Dynasty.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the synthesis of all analyzed factors—from astronomical and climatic (Thera
eruption) to legal and numerological—the following dating for the events and
the core textual layer is established:
Historical
Anchoring of Events: 17th Century BCE (approximately 1614–1600 BCE). This
period corresponds to Egypt's Second Intermediate Period (Hyksos 15th Dynasty),
explaining both the possibility of a Semite's (Joseph) rise at court and the
recorded climatic anomalies.
Textual Status: Genesis Chapter 43 demonstrates exceptional accuracy in depicting the realities of the Middle Bronze Age. Linguistic and ethnographic markers rule out the possibility that this fragment was composed in the 1st millennium BCE without reliance on authentic documents or oral traditions dating directly back to the 1600s BCE.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 21, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 43. About round ligament of femur. March 21, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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