English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 48
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 48 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 48 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 48 Analysis
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Excerpts from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:61-62)
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Type of
Similarity and Justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels,
Analogies, Similarity, Borrowings, Inversions)
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1 And it came to
pass after these things, that some one said to Joseph, Behold, thy father is
sick; and he took his two sons with him, Menasseh and Ephraim. … 10 Now the
eyes of Israel were dim through age, he could not see; and he brought them
near unto him, and he kissed them, and embraced them. 11 And Israel said unto
Joseph, To see thy face I had not hoped; and, lo, God hath shown me also thy
seed. … 21 And Israel said unto Joseph, Behold, I die; but God will be with
you, and bring you again unto the land of your fathers.
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Ophthalmopathy There is a notable similarity
in the clinical documentation of ocular diseases leading to blindness in the
elderly. |
Egypt The prevalence of eye diseases in ancient Egypt is reflected even in
their sacred texts. In Utterance № 311 (499b) of the «Pyramid Texts», dated
to 2350–2175 BCE, it is stated: «N. will not be blind when thou leavest him in
darkness;» (1952MercerSAB:166). Linguists
note that: «eye diseases seem to be as common among the Egyptian gods
as they were among the ancient Egyptians» (2008МеексД_Фавар-МеексК). Specialized
medical roles existed to address these issues; for instance, Irenakhet
Niankhpepi, known as the «Oculist of the Great House», is documented from the
Old Kingdom (1974PorterB_MossRLB; giza.fas.harvard.edu). The
environmental factors of the region played a significant role in public
health. «Blindness, in general, has always been highly prevalent among the
Egyptian people; the various eye diseases from which the ancient Egyptians
suffered—evidently no less than modern ones—result from dirt, dust, and the
vast amounts of fine sand stirred up by dry and hot winds. ... Blindness was
perceived, perhaps more than any other disease, as a divine punishment» (1926МатьеМЭ:33). This physical decline, particularly the loss of sight and hearing, is
a recurring theme in wisdom literature. In the «Instruction of
Ptahhotep» (6th Dynasty), we read: «Age is here, old age arrived, Feebleness
came, weakness grows, Childlike one sleeps all day. Eyes are dim, ears deaf,
Strength is waning through weariness, The mouth, silenced, speaks not, The
heart, void, recalls not the past, The bones ache throughout. Good has become
evil, all taste is gone, What age does to people is evil in everything. The nose,
clogged, breathes not, Painful are standing and sitting.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.62–63). Another
translation of the same text emphasizes this sensory loss: «O Prince,
my Lord, the end of life is at hand; old age descendeth [upon me]; feebleness
cometh, and childishness is renewed. He [that is old] lieth down in misery
every day. The eyes are small; the ears are deaf. Energy is diminished, the
heart hath no rest.» (1908BattiscombeG:41). Similarly, the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom) provides a poignant
account of the hero’s senescence: «For
old age has come; feebleness has overtaken me. My eyes are heavy, my arms
weak; my legs fail to follow. The heart is weary; death is near.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.229). In an alternative rendition, Sinuhe reflects: «Old age has arrived: weakness has overcome me, my
eyes have grown heavy, my arms are powerless, and my legs no longer obey my
weary heart. I approach my departure, to be led to the City of Eternity»
(1978КоростовцевМА:101).
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2 And some one
told Jacob, and said, Behold, thy son Joseph is coming unto thee; and Israel
strengthened himself, and sat upon the bed. … 8 And Israel perceived the sons
of Joseph, and said, Who are these? 9 And Joseph said unto his father, They
are my sons, whom God hath given me in this place. And he said, Bring them, I
pray thee, unto me, and I will bless them. 10 Now the eyes of Israel were dim
through age, he could not see; and he brought them near unto him, and he
kissed them, and embraced them. 11 And Israel said unto Joseph, To see thy
face I had not hoped; and, lo, God hath shown me also thy seed. 12 And Joseph
brought them out from between his knees, and he bowed himself with his face
to the earth. 13 And Joseph took them both, Ephraim in his right hand toward
Israel's left, and Menasseh in his left hand toward Israel's right, and
brought them near unto him. 14 And Israel stretched out his right hand, and
laid it upon Ephraim's head, who was the younger, and his left hand upon
Menasseh's head; he laid his hands wittingly; although Menasseh was the
first-born. … 20 And he blessed them that day, saying. With thee shall Israel
bless, saying, God make thee as Ephraim and Menasseh : and so he set Ephraim
before Menasseh. 21 And Israel said unto Joseph, Behold, I die; but God will
be with you, and bring you again unto the land of your fathers.
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Onomastic authenticity The identified structural similarity in the use of the theophoric
element «El» confirms that the biblical text belongs to the authentic Near
Eastern naming tradition of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia The theophoric
element «El» in personal names is frequently encountered in the documents of
the Mari archives. An example is a letter (ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his
lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). Furthermore, in a letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed
to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Hanaean» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Additionally, Yeskit-El, in a
letter (ARM 26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian
source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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3 And Jacob said
unto Joseph, God, the Almighty, appeared unto me at Luz in the land of
Canaan, and blessed me, … 7 And as for me, when I came from Padan, Rachel
died by me in the land of Canaan on the way, when yet there was some distance
to come unto Ephrath: and I buried her there on the way of Ephrath, the same
is Beth-lechem.
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Ethnopolitical Isomorphism The presence of the term «Canaan»
is characteristic of diplomatic correspondence and legal archives of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants
of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to Askudum (Mari archive, ARM
26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…> awaiting the arrival of the
Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In another letter (ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu
addressed to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned
(1988CharpinD:303–305). The Mari
archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Furthermore, according to Na'aman, «It
is thus evident that in mid–18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same area where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398).
Notably, «The earliest
occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the Old Testament is in
the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the middle of the
fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). Additionally, «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu, which
is attested by the documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is
supposed to be a Hurrian word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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5 And now thy two
sons, who were born unto thee in the land of Egypt, before I came unto thee
into Egypt, shall be mine; Ephraim and Menasseh shall be unto me as Reuben
and Simeon.6 And thy issue, which thou begettest after them, shall be thine,
after the name of their brothers shall they be called in their inheritance.
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Legal significance Parallels in Ancient Near Eastern jurisprudence.
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Mesopotamia According to the
«Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760
BCE): Ǥ
185. If
a man take in his name a young child as a son, and rear him, one may not
bring claim for that adopted son.» (1920HandcockPSP:32). |
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7 And as for me,
when I came from Padan, Rachel died by me in the land of Canaan on the way,
when yet there was some distance to come unto Ephrath: and I buried her there
on the way of Ephrath, the same is Beth-lechem. |
Biographical and Ethnocultural Isomorphism A similar narrative motif of returning from Asia to restore one’s
original identity, conceptualized as a transition from East to West.
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Egypt The spiritual and physical journey from East to West is a central motif
in Egyptian thought. In Utterance №
578 (1531a-b) of the «Pyramid Texts», dated to 2350–2175 BCE, it is stated:
«Osiris N., thou shalt not hasten to those lands of the East; thou shalt
hasten to these lands of the West by the way of the Followers of Rē‘.»
(1952MercerSAB:389). This geographical and
cultural tension is also found in secular literature. As a result, «Sinuhe
flees from Egypt to Syria, where he spends many years» (1978КоростовцевМА:266). Later, the hero returns
from Asia, making a transition from east to west toward the banks of the
Nile. Specifically, In the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), the courtiers exclaim to the Pharaoh: «Look, here is Sinuhe! He has returned looking like an Asiatic, as if
he were an Asiatic» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:40). Alternative
translations emphasize different nuances of his transformation. In another
translation of the same tale, we read: «And his majesty said to the king’s wife: — Look, Sinuhe has returned
in the guise of an Asiatic, a born Bedouin.» (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ:26). The classic translation of «The Story of Sinuhe» into English: «Then the royal daughters
were brought in, and his majesty said to the queen: "Here is Sinuhe,
come as an Asiatic, a product of nomads!"» (2006LichtheimM:1.232). The desire to return to one's roots is equally present in the story «The
Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor» (Middle Kingdom), where we find: «You will reach home in two months. You will
embrace your children. You will flourish at home, you will be buried.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.213–214). In another
translation of the same story, the serpent says: «You shall set out on the return journey with them, and you shall
meet death [not in a distant foreign land, but] in your native city...» (2007РакИ:190).
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10 Now the eyes
of Israel were dim through age, he could not see; and he brought them near
unto him, and he kissed them, and embraced them. |
Clinical Ophthalmology The texts demonstrate a shared
knowledge of ocular pathology, which as early as the 18th century BCE was
already a subject of surgical intervention in civilized settings. |
Mesopotamia According to
Sumerian-Akkadian medical texts, surgical procedures involving a barber’s
razor were performed to treat corneal opacity (2014ScurlockJ). Detailed regulations for such medical
practices are found in the Babylonian «Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE),
which states: Ǥ 215. If a physician operate on a man for a severe
wound (or make a severe wound upon a man) with a bronze lancet and save the man's
life ; or if he open an abscess (in the eye) of a man with a bronze lancet
and save that man's eye, he shall receive 10 shekels of silver (as his fee).
<…> § 218. If a physician operate on a man for a severe wound with a
bronze lancet and cause the man's death ; or open an abscess (in the eye) of
a man with a bronze lancet and destroy the man's eye, they shall cut off his
fingers. <…> § 220. If he open an abscess (in his eye) with a bronze
lancet, and destroy his eye, he shall pay silver to the extent of one-half of
his price.» (1920HandcockPSP:34–35).
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14 And Israel
stretched out his right hand, and laid it upon Ephraim's head, who was the
younger, and his left hand upon Menasseh's head; he laid his hands wittingly;
although Menasseh was the first-born. |
Social Prerogative of Primogeniture A similarity is observed in the strict adherence to the hierarchy of
birth order as a fundamental principle for the distribution of social status
and inheritance rights. |
Mesopotamia According to the
«Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE): «§ 170. If a man's wife bear him children
and his maid-servant bear him children, and the father during his life time
say to the children which the maid-servant bore him : «My children», and
reckon them with the children of his wife, after the father dies the children
of the wife and the children of the maid-servant shall divide the goods of
the father's house equally. The child of the wife shall have the right of
choice at the division.» (1920HandcockPSP:28). Similar legal arrangements regarding the status of offspring are found
in the Nuzi archive. One contract (H67), according to which «As for (the
concubine's) offspring, Gilimninu shall [not] send (them) away. Any sons that
out of the womb of Gilimninu [to She]nnima may be bor[n, all the] lands,
buildings, [whatever their description,] to (these) sons are given.» (1928SpeiserEA:32). The cuneiform tablets from Nuzi
date back to the mid-second millennium BCE (1976SelmanMJ:114).
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14 And Israel
stretched out his right hand, and laid it upon Ephraim's head, who was the
younger, and his left hand upon Menasseh's head; he laid his hands wittingly;
although Menasseh was the first-born.
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Social Prerogative of Primogeniture A similarity is observed in the strict adherence to the hierarchy of
birth order as a fundamental principle for the distribution of social status
and inheritance rights.
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Egypt The concept of primogeniture and divine heirship is deeply rooted in
Egyptian funerary and mythological texts. In the Pyramid of Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE) Recitation
№ 519 «The
Firstborn Thing’s scent is on this Pepi Neferkare; the benben is in Sokar’s
enclosure, the foreleg is in Anubis’s house.» (2007AllenJP:292). This is echoed in recitation №
641 (1814a-b) of the «Pyramid Texts» (dating from 2350–2175 BCE), where it is stated: «thou art the
eldest son of Geb, his first-born, his heir» (1952MercerSAB:445). The legitimacy
of the heir remained a central theme even in later accounts of Egyptian
mythology. Plutarch (1st–2nd century CE) recounted the legend that Horus, «whom
Isis brought forth as no sensible image of that world which is conceptual»,
was brought to trial by Seth «on a charge of illegitimacy, as not being pure
and unalloyed like his father» (1996Плутарх:54). |
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15 And he blessed
Joseph, and said. The God, before whom my fathers Abraham and Isaac did walk,
the God who fed me from my first being unto this day, 16 The angel who
redeemed me from all evil, bless the lads; and let my name be called on them,
and the name of my fathers Abraham and Isaac ; and let them grow into a
multitude in the midst of the earth. |
The Formula of Apotropaic Supplication Similarity is evident in the use of the stable liturgical construction
«deliverance / protection from all evil», aimed at securing divine patronage
for a specific individual or their progeny. |
Egypt Egyptian hymns of
this type trace back to the «Pyramid Texts». In one dedicated to a local
deity, it is said: «Protect Sobek from all evil» (1920ТураевБА:42). The «Pyramid Texts» (dated to 2350–2175 BCE) contain numerous such
pleas for protection. Utterance № 445 (825a–c) states: «Osiris N., thy
mother, Nut, has spread herself over thee, that she may hide thee from all
evil things. Nut has guarded thee from all evil;» (1952MercerSAB:241). Similarly, Utterance № 506 (1096b–c)
reads: «I am Hathor-symbol-of-the-female-soul, who has two faces; I am
he who is to be delivered; I have delivered myself from all evil things.»
(1952MercerSAB:297). This tradition of seeking divine intervention against harm continued
in medical and magical papyri. Incantation № 1 on the verso of the
«Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE) contains the words: «O
Seizor-of-the-Great-One, son of Sekhmet, mightiest of the mighty, son of the
Disease-Demon, Dened, son of Hathor, mistress of the crown ( nt ), and
flooder of the streams ; when thou voyagest in the Celestial Ocean, when thou
sailest in the morning barque, thou hast saved me from every sickness.»
(1930BreastedJH:474; sae.saw-leipzig.de). In the «Ebers Papyrus» (Eb 2), it is
written: «O Isis, great enchantress, free me! Deliver me from every foul
thing, evil, and danger…» (1889EbersG, sae.saw-leipzig.de). The «Ebers Papyrus» is dated to
1553–1550 BCE (1947CastiglioniA:49).
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22 Moreover I
have given unto thee one portion above thy brothers, which I took out of the
hand of the Emorite with my sword and with my bow. See note!
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Technological Verification The mention of a sword as the primary
tool for survival corresponds to the Bronze Age (4th–2nd millennia BCE), a period when this specific type of
weaponry began to dominate military and survival contexts. |
Mesopotamia,
Anatolia In terms of ancient weaponry, the
first bronze swords, discovered among the ruins of the Arslantepe palace in
the upper Euphrates, were forged in 3300–3000 BCE (1998PalmieriAM_HessK;
2010DiNoceraGM). Furthermore, it is presumably the case that the idea of the
curved sword originated in Mesopotamia in 2700–2400 BCE
(1946Maxwell-HyslopR). Specifically, on the Sumerian mosaic «Standard of Ur» (BM 121201, 2500
BCE), a sickle-shaped blade (battle axe?) and a short straight sword are
depicted (britishmuseum.org). Moreover, in the Akkadian «Epic of Gilgamesh», the text repeatedly
says of the sword: «Their swords should be one talent»; «Suddenly the swords ... , and
after the sheaths ... , the axes were smeared .. . dagger and sword ...» ;
«Between the nape, the horns, and ... thrust your sword.» ; «You, axe at my
side, so trusty at my hand- you, sword at my waist, shield in front of me,
you, my festal garment, a sash over my loins» (1989KovacsMG:20,41,55,70). The
epic also talks about the guardian of the forest: «Enkidu spoke to Gilgamesh,
saying: "My friend, Humbaba, Guardian of the Forest, grind up, kill,
pulverize(?), and ... him!" <…> The tavern-keeper spoke to Gilgamesh,
saying: "If you are Gilgamesh, who killed the Guardian, who destroyed
Humbaba who lived in the Cedar Forest, who slew lions in the mountain passes,
who grappled with the Bull that came down from heaven, and killed him, why
are your cheeks emaciated, your expression desolate?"»
(1989KovacsMG:45,84). The standard version of the «Epic of Gilgamesh» was
first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600 BCE)
(1989KovacsMG:xxii).
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22 Moreover I
have given unto thee one portion above thy brothers, which I took out of the
hand of the Emorite with my sword and with my bow.
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Technological Verification The mention of a sword as the
primary tool for survival corresponds to the Bronze Age (3rd–2nd millennia
BCE), a period when this specific type of weaponry began to dominate military
and survival contexts. |
Egypt In Ancient Egypt, the curved battle axe (khopesh) was adopted during
the Middle Kingdom, approximately between 2040–1640 BCE, and was widely used
in the New Kingdom (ca. 1550–1070 BCE) (1946Maxwell-HyslopR). According to
another point of view, ancient Egyptian swords, including the curved khopesh,
came into use during the Second Intermediate Period (2017DeanR). Furthermore, in the «Prophecies of Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty), a sword is mentioned: «The son of man
will make his name for all eternity! The evil-minded, the treason-plotters,
They suppress their speech in fear of him; Asiatics will fall to his sword,
Libyans will fall to his flame, Rebels to his wrath, traitors to his might,
As the serpent on his brow subdues the rebels for him.» (2006LichtheimM:1.143).
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The Amorite Horizon
22 Moreover I have given unto thee
one portion above thy brothers, which I took out of the hand of the Emorite
with my sword and with my bow.
Diverse textual and
archaeological data concerning the Amorites, who spread from the Persian Gulf
to the Nile Delta, date to the period between 2500 and 1600 BCE. After about
2000 BCE, the Amorite identity was present in the area from southern
Mesopotamia to Mari and the northern Levant (2019BurkeAA:68). Following this period, Amorite
kingdoms continued to exist until the beginning of the 16th century BCE
(2023WassermanN_BlochY:13).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 48
Clinical
Documentation of Senescence
The
description of Israel’s failing eyesight (Genesis 48:10) aligns with the
medical and literary traditions of the Old and Middle Kingdoms (c. 2350–1650
BCE), where ophthalmopathy is consistently linked to advanced age. Textual
parallels in the Instruction of Ptahhotep (6th Dynasty) and the Story of Sinuhe
(12th Dynasty) utilize an identical clinical inventory—dimmed eyes, heavy
limbs, and a weary heart—to signal the onset of death. This specific diagnostic
vocabulary reflects an authentic Egyptian perception of geriatric decline.
Theological
Perception of Blindness
The
narrative's focus on visual impairment as a precursor to the final blessing
mirrors the Egyptian view of blindness as a significant spiritual and physical
state, mentioned in the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350–2175 BCE). The linguistic and
thematic continuity between the biblical text and Egyptian «pessimistic»
literature suggests that the author employed a well-established Mediterranean
medical trope of the early-to-mid 2nd millennium BCE. Such precise clinical
detailing anchors the scene in a historical reality where environmental
factors, like desert dust, made ocular diseases a hallmark of the aging elite.
Onomastic
Stratigraphy of the Patriarchal Era
The
prominent use of the theophoric element «El» in the designation of the deity
(Genesis 48:3, El Shaddai) and in the ancestral identity (Israel, Gen 48:20)
aligns perfectly with the West Semitic onomastic patterns of the Middle Bronze
Age (c. 2000–1600 BCE). Systematic parallels in the Mari archives (c. 18th
century BCE), involving names such as Ibal-pi-El and Yakhsib-El, confirm that
this naming convention was a linguistic standard among the Amorite and Hanaean
populations. This onomastic correspondence provides a precise chronological
anchor in the first half of the 18th century BCE, reflecting an era before the
widespread transition to other theophoric prefixes.
Linguistic
Authenticity and Regional Context
The
structural identity between biblical names and those documented in the royal
correspondence of Zimri-Lim suggests a shared cultural and linguistic milieu
spanning from Mesopotamia to the Levant. The preservation of these «El-type»
names in the 48th chapter of Genesis serves as a high-fidelity record of the
authentic naming traditions characteristic of the Middle Bronze Age. Such
linguistic consistency underscores the narrative’s roots in a historical
reality where «El» was the primary divine component in personal and tribal
nomenclature during the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Ethno-Onomastic
Stratigraphy of the Benjaminite Identity
The mention
of Benjamin (Genesis 48:7) as a distinct familial and tribal entity corresponds
to the historical presence of the Binu-Yamina (Benjaminites) documented in the
Mari archives (c. 18th century BCE). Systematic parallels in the correspondence
of Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1) identify these groups as a potent socio-political force
operating within the nomadic and semi-settled landscapes of the Near East. This
onomastic and ethnonymic alignment provides a precise chronological anchor in
the Middle Bronze Age, confirming that the name «Benjamin» was an authentic
designation for West Semitic groups during the first half of the 2nd millennium
BCE.
Geopolitical
Context and Tribal Dynamics
The role of
the Benjaminites in the Mari letters—characterized by their military alliances,
prophetic traditions, and proximity to Canaanite territories—mirrors the
biblical depiction of the tribe as a cohesive and formidable block. The
linguistic and historical continuity between the Binu-Yamina of the Middle
Euphrates and the Benjamin of the patriarchal narrative suggests a shared
cultural milieu rooted in the 18th century BCE. Such archival evidence anchors
the tribal nomenclature of Genesis 48 in a verified historical reality of the
early-to-mid 2nd millennium BCE, reflecting the complex inter-tribal dynamics
of the era.
Ethnocultural
Transition and Identity Restoration
The
narrative motif of returning from the «East» (Padan-Aram/Syria) to the «West»
(Canaan/Egypt) to restore a primary identity mirrors the literary structure of
the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE), most notably in the Story of Sinuhe.
Jacob’s retrospective on his journey from the East (Genesis 48:7) and the
integration of Joseph’s Egyptian-born sons into the patriarchal line represent
a formal reversal of «Asiatic» or «nomadic» status in favor of established
ancestral belonging. This thematic transition from the eastern wilderness to
the settled west is deeply rooted in the ideological framework of the
early-to-mid 2nd millennium BCE, where such a return was essential for
historical and funerary legitimacy.
Funerary
Geopolitics and Native Reintegration
The
emphasis on returning home for burial and the shedding of foreign «Asiatic»
guises, as depicted in the Story of Sinuhe and the Shipwrecked Sailor, find a
direct parallel in the patriarchal insistence on burial in the ancestral land.
The biblical description of Joseph’s family arriving from the East aligns with
the Egyptian trope of the «Asiatic product of nomads» who must be ritually and
legally reintegrated into the native socio-legal system. Such biographical
isomorphism anchors the narrative's structure in the Middle Bronze Age
tradition, where the movement between the Levant and the Nile Valley was a
defining element of elite status and identity.
Evolution
of Ocular Pathology and Surgical Regulation
The
clinical detail regarding Israel’s irreversible blindness (Genesis 48:10)
reflects a sophisticated understanding of ocular pathology prevalent in the Old
Babylonian period (c. 1894–1595 BCE). As documented in the Code of Hammurabi
(c. 1760 BCE), eye diseases and their surgical treatments were sufficiently
advanced to require specific legal statutes (§215, 218, 220) governing the use
of the «bronze lancet» for abscesses and corneal conditions. This legal and
medical framework provides a precise chronological anchor in the 18th century
BCE, indicating that the narrative’s descriptive layer is rooted in a
historical reality where ophthalmic crises were a recognized matter of
professional intervention and state regulation.
Technological
and Legal Context of Ancient Medicine
The
biblical mention of non-recoverable sight in an elderly patriarch aligns with
the «civilized settings» of the Middle Bronze Age, where physicians specialized
in the treatment of ocular pathology. The failure of sight despite potential
medical knowledge of the era—such as the Sumerian-Akkadian texts on corneal
opacity—emphasizes the finality of the biological decline described in the
text. This correspondence between the biblical narrative and the 18th-century
BCE Mesopotamian legal codes anchors the scene's realism within the documented
medical and social standards of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Legal
Framework of Adoption and Inheritance
Jacob’s
formal adoption of Joseph’s sons, Ephraim and Manasseh (Genesis 48:5–6), and
his subsequent reordering of their inheritance rights find a direct structural
parallel in the Old Babylonian legal tradition (c. 18th–17th centuries BCE).
According to the Code of Hammurabi (§170), a father’s oral declaration—»My
children»—served as a definitive legal act that elevated subordinate offspring
to equal status with primary heirs, though the firstborn retained the «right of
choice» during the division of property. This specific administrative mechanism
of patriarchal oral decree as a source of law provides a precise chronological
anchor in the Middle Bronze Age, where family law was increasingly formalized
through such documented protocols.
The Nuzi
Precedents and Successional Hierarchy
The
biblical narrative’s tension between primary and secondary lines of descent is
mirrored in the Nuzi archives (c. 15th century BCE), where contracts like H67
strictly regulated the transfer of «lands and buildings» to the biological sons
of a primary wife. Jacob’s intervention, which effectively bypasses standard
primogeniture in favor of a chosen successor, reflects the flexibility within
the patriarchal systems of the mid-2nd millennium BCE, where adoption was used
as a strategic tool for lineage preservation. These correspondences suggest
that the 48th chapter of Genesis preserves an authentic record of the complex
and documented inheritance disputes characteristic of the second millennium
BCE.
Linguistic
Continuity of Apotropaic Formulae
The
blessing of Jacob, specifically the invocation of «the Angel who delivered me
from all evil» (Genesis 48:16), reflects a stable liturgical construction
prevalent in Egyptian religious texts from the Old Kingdom to the Second
Intermediate Period. The phrase «delivered/guarded from all evil» (m ꜣbt nbwt
djt) is systematically attested in the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350–2175 BCE) and
later medical-magical papyri, such as the Edwin Smith and Ebers manuscripts.
This cross-cultural parallel suggests that the biblical text utilizes a
standardized Near Eastern protective formula designed to secure divine
patronage, a practice that reached its peak of formalization in the mid-2nd
millennium BCE (c. 1650–1550 BCE).
Theological
Synthesis of Protection and Salvation
The shift
from abstract divine protection to the specific role of a «delivering» agent
mirrors the evolution of Egyptian incantations where deities like Nut, Isis, or
the «Seizor-of-the-Great-One» are invoked to «free» or «save» the individual
from sickness and «every foul thing.» The use of this «deliverance from evil»
motif in a successional blessing aligns with the prophylactic traditions of the
Middle and Late Bronze Ages, where divine intervention was sought to ensure the
biological and social survival of the next generation. These textual
correspondences anchor the rhetorical style of Genesis 48 within the
established sacred and medical protocols of the second millennium BCE.
Evolution
of Bronze Weaponry and Combat Identity
The mention
of the sword and bow as Jacob’s primary instruments of territorial acquisition
(Genesis 48:22) aligns with the technological landscape of the Bronze Age (c.
3300–1200 BCE). Archaeological evidence from the Arslantepe palace (c.
3300–3000 BCE) and iconographic depictions on the Sumerian Standard of Ur (c.
2500 BCE) verify that the short straight sword and sickle-shaped blades were
established military standards long before the patriarchal era. This
technological verification anchors the narrative in a period where specialized
bronze metallurgy defined the socio-political power of Near Eastern leaders, a
reality consistently reflected in the Old Babylonian version of the Epic of
Gilgamesh (c. 1800–1600 BCE). The mention of the sword as a primary weapon for
territorial acquisition (Genesis 48:22) aligns with the military reforms of the
Middle Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period (c. 2040–1550 BCE).
Archaeological and textual evidence, such as the Prophecies of Neferti (12th
Dynasty), confirms that the sword (notably the khopesh) became a definitive
instrument for subduing «Asiatics» and «rebels» during the early-to-mid 2nd
millennium BCE. This technological transition, where bronze blades shifted from
prestige items to standard tools of survival and conquest, provides a clear
terminus post quem for the narrative’s martial imagery, anchoring it in the
Middle Bronze Age.
Military
Ethos and Administrative Reality
The
description of the sword as a personal attribute—»my sword and my bow»—mirrors
the heroic and administrative rhetoric of the early-to-mid 2nd millennium BCE,
where weapons were not only tools of survival but symbols of legal and divine
right. The recurring references to swords and daggers in the Epic of Gilgamesh
underscore a shared cultural milieu in which military prowess was essential for
the consolidation of land and legacy. This correspondence suggests that the
48th chapter of Genesis preserves an authentic memory of the Middle Bronze Age
military ethos, where the sword had become a ubiquitous instrument of both
nomadic defense and state-level conquest. The biblical depiction of a patriarch
wielding a sword to seize land from the Amorites mirrors the intense regional
conflicts and the introduction of advanced weaponry during the Hyksos era (c.
1650–1550 BCE). The adoption of the curved khopesh and the focus on «making
one's name for all eternity» through military prowess are hallmarks of the
Egyptian and Levantine literature of this period. These correspondences suggest
that Genesis 48 preserves an authentic memory of the mid-2nd millennium BCE
military culture, where the sword was both a legal instrument of property
seizure and a symbol of dynastic survival.
General
Conclusion
The
analysis of Genesis Chapter 48 demonstrates a profound isomorphism with the
legal, medical, and onomastic standards of the Near East during the first half
of the 2nd millennium BCE. The legal procedure of Jacob adopting Ephraim and
Manasseh (Gen 48:5–6) reflects the specific Old Babylonian juridical protocols
found in the Code of Hammurabi (§170) and the Nuzi archives, where oral
patriarchal decrees served as definitive instruments for elevating offspring
status and redistributing inheritance. Furthermore, the clinical description of
geriatric ophthalmopathy in the patriarch (Gen 48:10) aligns with the medical
and literary tropes of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom (Sinuhe, Ptahhotep) and the
regulated ophthalmic surgery of the 18th-century BCE Mesopotamian legal codes.
The
onomastic and ethnonymic stratigraphy provides additional verification, as the
prominent use of the theophoric element «El» and the specific mention of the «Benjaminite»
(Binu-Yamina) identity find direct historical correlates in the Mari archives
(c. 1750 BCE). The technological context, specifically the mention of the sword
and bow as instruments of property seizure (Gen 48:22), corresponds to the
military reforms and the introduction of the khopesh during the Middle Kingdom
and the Second Intermediate Period. These convergent lines of evidence—ranging
from apotropaic liturgical formulae to metallurgical developments—consistently
anchor the narrative's core within a specialized cultural and administrative
milieu of the Middle Bronze Age.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the synthesis of nine analytical blocks, the socio-legal framework, medical
descriptions, and onomastic data of Genesis Chapter 48 support a primary dating
within the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1850–1550 BCE).
The
Juridical and Onomastic Layer: Firmly correlates with the 18th century BCE,
specifically the Old Babylonian period and the Mari archives (c. 1760–1750
BCE).
The
Literary and Medical Layer: Corresponds to the Egyptian 12th and 13th Dynasties
(c. 1950–1700 BCE), reflecting the high-status protocols of Middle Kingdom
wisdom and adventure literature.
The
Technological Layer: Aligns with the Second Intermediate Period (c. 1650–1550
BCE), marked by the widespread use of bronze weaponry and the intense regional
interactions of the Hyksos era.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 23, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 48. About round ligament of femur. March 23, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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