English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 45
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 45 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 45 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 45 Analysis
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Excerpt from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:57-59)
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Type of
similarity and justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels, Analogies, Convergences,
Borrowings, and Inversions in Archaeology, Culture, Medical Knowledge, and
Historical Facts: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Anatolia, and the Nile Valley)
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2 And he raised his voice in weeping ; and the Egyptians heard it, and the house of Pharaoh heard it. … 8 So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God; and he hath made me a father to Pharaoh, and a lord for all his house, and a ruler throughout all the land of Egypt. … 16 And the report thereof was heard in Pharaoh's house, saying, Joseph's brothers are come; and it was pleasing in the eyes of Pharaoh, and in the eyes of his servants. 17 And Pharaoh said unto Joseph, Say unto thy brothers, This do ye; load your beasts, and go, get you unto the land of Canaan; … 21 And the children of Israel did so ; and Joseph gave them wagons, according to the command of Pharaoh; and he gave them provision for the way. |
Borrowing the word «Pharaoh» |
An Egyptian word that originally designated the palace or the
residence of the king and his administration. By the 12th Dynasty, it became
associated with the three wishes following the royal name (life, prosperity,
health), and by the New Kingdom, the term began to be used as a title for the
king himself (2021NoonanBJ:183).
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5 But now be not grieved, nor be angry with yourselves, that ye sold me hither; for in order to preserve life did God send me before you. … 7 And God hath thus sent me before you to prepare for you a permanence on the earth, and to save your lives by a great deliverance. 8 So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God; and he hath made me a father to Pharaoh, and a lord for all his house, and a ruler throughout all the land of Egypt. |
Divine Providential Ordinance. The similarity lies in the
interpretation of the hero's personal hardships and subsequent elevation not
as mere coincidence, but as the result of a divine design aimed at mercy and
salvation. |
Egypt In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «Thus I became
great, wealthy in goods, rich in herds. It was the god who acted, so as to
show mercy to one with whom he had been angry, whom he had made stray abroad.
For today his heart
is appeased.» (2006LichtheimM:1.228).
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6 For these two years hath the famine been already in the land; and there
are yet five years, in which there will be neither ploughing nor harvesting.
… 11 And I will maintain thee there; for there are yet five years of famine ;
lest thou, and thy household, and all that thou hast, come to poverty. … 22
To all of them he gave to each changes of raiment; but to Benjamin he gave
three hundred pieces of silver, and five changes of raiment.
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Sacred Pentad. The similarity is manifested in the
use of the number «five» as a symbol of a divine or privileged portion, defining
a specific ritual and social rank. |
Egypt The Egyptians distinguished specific «epagomenal days» added to the
year. «The five last days of the Egyptian civil calendar, so called because
they are additional to the twelve 30–day months of the calendar. Each of the
five days was celebrated as the birth of a god: Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis,
and Nephthys.» (2007AllenJP:430). The numeral «five», as a sacred number, begins to appear in the
«Pyramid Texts,» dating from 2350–2175 BCE: Utterance № 35 (27d-e) :
«Thy mouth is the mouth of a sucking calf on the day of his birth. Five
pellets of natron of the North, Wadi Natrûn (št-p.t)» (1952MercerSAB:49); Utterance
№ 45 (35a): «Osiris N., take to thyself the white teeth of Horus which equip
thy mouth. Five white cakes.» (1952MercerSAB:51); Utterance № 45 (121b-c):
«For he (N.) is indeed the great bull which smote Kns.t. For to N. indeed
belong the five portions of bread, liquid, cake, in the mansion,»
(1952MercerSAB:86). In Utterance № 173 from the «Coffin Texts» collection (ca. 2134–2040
BCE), we read: «I am the Bull, the Old One of Kenzet, in charge of the five
(sic) portions in this temple; five portions are above with Rec, five
portions are below with Osiris.» (1973FaulknerRO:148); Spell № 181 : «Bull
with curly hair, having five portions in the House of Horus and two portions
in the House of Seth;» (1973FaulknerRO:152).
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6 For these two years hath the famine been already in the land; and
there are yet five years, in which there will be neither ploughing nor
harvesting. … 11 And I will maintain thee there; for there are yet five years
of famine ; lest thou, and thy household, and all that thou hast, come to
poverty.
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Climatically determined
catastrophe. A similarity in their perception of
famine as a fundamental threat to societal existence, serving as the primary
trigger for shifts in the territorial and social status of populations during
the early 2nd millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia In the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh,
famine is invoked in an address to one of the gods: «Instead of your bringing
on the Flood, would that famine had occurred to slay the land!»
(1989KovacsMG:103). The standard version of the «Epic of Gilgamesh»,
first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800-1600 BCE)
(1989KovacsMG:xxii). |
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6 For these two years hath the famine been already in the land; and
there are yet five years, in which there will be neither ploughing nor
harvesting. … 11 And I will maintain thee there; for there are yet five years
of famine ; lest thou, and thy household, and all that thou hast, come to
poverty.
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Description of the food collapse. The similarity is observed
in the detailed recording of the social consequences of a large-scale food
deficit. In the context of the biblical narrative, the famine could only have
been caused by climate change in the Eastern Mediterranean region. |
Egypt The «Famine Stela» testifies that during a period of social distress,
Pharaoh Djoser [3rd Dynasty] ordered immediate sacrifices to be brought to
Khnum. That same night, Khnum appeared to him in a dream. The Pharaoh swore a
sacred oath to the god that his altars would henceforth never be impoverished
(2004РакИВ:158). This inscription,
apparently made during the Ptolemaic era, records a period of food shortages.
In «The Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we find: «Lo, Hapy
inundates and none plow for him, All say, "We don't know what has happened
in the land." Lo, women are barren, none conceive, Khnum does not
fashion because of the state of the land. <…> «Lo, the great hunger and suffer, <…>
Lo, [one eats] herbs, washed down with water, Birds find neither fruit nor
herbs, One takes --- from the mouth of pigs, No face is bright ... hunger.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.151,154-155). In the «Prophecies of
Neferti» (reign
of Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty) it is stated: «None speak, none shed tears: "How fares
this land!" The sundisk, covered, shines not for people to see, One
cannot live when clouds conceal, All are numbs from lack of it. I shall
describe what is before me, I do not foretell what does not come: Dry is the
river of Egypt, One crosses the water on foot ; One seeks water for ships to
sail on, Its course having turned into shore land. <…> Its course
having turned into shore land. Shoreland will turn into water, Watercourse
back into shoreland. South wind will combat northwind, Sky will lack the
single wind. <…> The grain is
low-the measure is large, It is measured to overflowing. Re will withdraw
from mankind: Though he will rise at his hour. One will not know when noon
has come; No one will discern his shadow, No face will be dazzled by seeing
[him], No eyes will moisten with water. He will be in the sky like the moon,»
(2006LichtheimM:1.141,142-143). In the «Hearst Medical Papyrus», written under Amenhotep I,
incantation № 170 implies a flood in northern Egypt, possibly associated with
a tsunami resulting from the Minoan eruption (1992GoedickeH:60). The «Tempest
Stele» (early 18th Dynasty) records abnormal weather phenomena likely
observed over several years (2014RitnerRK_MoellerN:14). In the «Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus», compiled under King Apepi (Second Intermediate
Period), an account is given of unusual thunder and rain that began only the
following day (1923PeetTE:129).
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8 So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God; and he hath made
me a father to Pharaoh, and a lord for all his house, and a ruler throughout
all the land of Egypt. 9 Haste ye, and go up to my father, and say unto him,
Thus hath said thy son Joseph, God hath made me lord of all Egypt; come down
unto me, tarry not. … 25 And they went up out of Egypt, and came into the
land of Canaan, unto Jacob their father. 26 And they told him, saying, Joseph
is yet alive; and that he is governor over all the land of Egypt. But his
heart remained cold, for he believed them not.
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Sacral-Political
Legitimation of Power. The similarity is manifested
in the use of the «son-heir» mythologeme, who, through his elevation and the
public display of his acquired administrative functions, restores the status
and well-being of his father (analogy of Joseph—Jacob and Horus—Osiris). |
Egypt The inheritance of Joseph from his father is prefigured, similar to
that of Horus from Osiris despite the claims of Seth. In Spell №. 5 from the
collection of «Coffin Texts» (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), it is explicitly stated:
«Horus, the successor of Osiris» (1973FaulknerRO:3). In Spell № 42–43 of the
«Coffin Texts», there is an unambiguous allusion to the inheritance of
Osiris's throne: «Thoth having given to him the thrones of Geb, while Horus
is heir. Horus is concerned with the business of the vindication of his
father N» (1973FaulknerRO:34). «In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, people loved to recount the execution of royal commissions and significant deeds, often citing documents, especially royal letters» (1915ТураевБА:47). In the autobiographical «Inscription of Weni» (Old Kingdom, late 24th century BCE), the official boasts of his significance: «Never before had such an office been given to a mere servant. ... I administered affairs in the South. There has never been a ruler there like me» (1978КоростовцевМА:83).
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8 So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God; and he hath made
me a father to Pharaoh, and a lord for all his house, and a ruler throughout
all the land of Egypt. 9 Haste ye, and go up to my father, and say unto him,
Thus hath said thy son Joseph, God hath made me lord of all Egypt; come down
unto me, tarry not. NB! 41:40 Thou shalt be over my house, and according to thy word shall all
my people be ruled; only in regard to the throne will I be greater than thou.
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Meritocratic Model of Social Mobility. The similarity lies in the description of the historical phenomenon of
the elevation of an individual of non-noble origin, where intellectual
abilities (wisdom, literacy) allowed a person from the «lower classes» to
occupy a high administrative position in the state. |
Egypt On stele CG 20718, dedicated
to the 13th Dynasty official Senebsumai as treasurer, mention is also made of
Henmes, «chamber keeper and cupbearer», a prominent middle-ranking official
during the reigns of Sobekhotep III, Neferhotep I, and Sobekhotep IV
(2019StefanovićD:275-276). In «The Instruction of Khety, son of Duauf, to his son Pepi» (Middle
Kingdom), it is stated: 2You will not see anyone who does not have overseers
over him. Only the scribe himself governs others» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:244). During the Middle Kingdom, «people of entirely non-noble origin began
to enter the scribal profession. The same can be said for the New Kingdom»
(2001КоростовцевМА:53-54). In «Papyrus Anastasi III» (New Kingdom), there is an appeal: «turn to
the activity of a scribe, and you will lead everyone» (2001КоростовцевМА:217). During the time of Pharaoh Merneptah [19th Dynasty], there was a high
priest in Thinis named Ankhurmes, who states in his autobiography: «I was a
poor man, taken into school» (2001КоростовцевМА:24-25).
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10 And thou shalt dwell in the land of Goshen, and thou shalt be near
unto me, thou, and thy children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks,
and thy herds, and all that is thine. |
Geographic and Administrative Localization. The similarity is found in the mention of the specific toponym
«Goshen», identified as a borderland—a region in the eastern part of the Nile
Delta suitable for settlement and animal husbandry. |
Egypt A.H. Gardiner (1924) suggested that the biblical locality «Goshen»
should be sought in the eastern Nile Delta. According to E. Naville, the land
of «Goshen» (Gesem) was located in the east, «not far» from the country. «At
the western entrance to the Goshen Valley, with its capital Pe(r)-sopd(u)
('House of Sopdu'; also called 'House of the Sycamore'), modern Saft
el-Hinna», was located the twentieth nome of the Delta, later designated as
the «Arabian nome» (2021МюллерМ:158). In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle
Kingdom), it is stated: «I crossed Maaty near Sycamore; I reached
Isle-of-Snefru.» (2006LichtheimM:1.224).
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12 And, behold, your own eyes see, and the eyes of my brother
Benjamin, that it is my mouth that speaketh unto you. … 14 And he fell upon
his brother Benjamin's neck, and wept; and Benjamin wept upon his neck. … 22
To all of them he gave to each changes of raiment; but to Benjamin he gave
three hundred pieces of silver, and five changes of raiment.
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Ethno-Onomastic Authenticity. The similarity is manifested
in the use of the name «Benjamin» (Binyamin) as a documented anthroponym and
ethnonym within the Near East during the Middle Bronze Age.
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Mesopotamia The correspondence from the Mari archives mentions the Benjaminite
tribes, their kings, and princes, who lived in proximity to the Bedouins of
Canaan. Specifically, the author of a letter (ARM 26/1 282) reminds
Zimri-Lim: «Two Canaanites must be brought alive to the border and mutilated
there. They must go alive to the Benjaminites and tell them that my Lord has
captured the city of Mishlan by force...» (1988CharpinD:582-583, archibab.fr). A certain Ishi-Addu, in a
letter (ARM 26/1 121), conveys the words of oracles: «Go to Dur-Yahdun-Lim
and verify the prophecies concerning the inhabitants of Qatna and the
Zalmakkum, relating to the Benjaminites. If, when Zimri-Lim and his troops
set out on a campaign... the Benjaminites will surely form a solid block with
their forces and [...] and besiege Dur-Yahdun-Lim» (1988CharpinD:287-288, archibab.fr). The Mesopotamian archive
of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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17 And Pharaoh said unto Joseph, Say unto thy brothers, This do ye;
load your beasts, and go, get you unto the land of Canaan; 18 And take your
father and your households, and come unto me; and I will give you the best of
the land of Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat of the land. 19 And thou art
commanded, This do ye, take unto yourselves out of the land of Egypt wagons
for your little ones, and for your wives, and take up your father, and come.
20 And do ye feel no concern on account of your household goods ; for the
best of all the land of Egypt is yours. |
Court Etiquette and Monarchal Accessibility. Similarity in the description of direct interaction between the
Pharaoh and the administrative and intellectual elite, characteristic of the
transformation period of Egyptian despotism. |
Egypt «In the Middle Kingdom, pharaohs
already communicated with nomarchs and representatives of the nobility,
participated in military campaigns, and so forth, whereas in the Old Kingdom,
only the elite of the elite could behold the earthly deity» (2004РакИВ:109). In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle
Kingdom), there is a description of an
audience with the king: «When it dawned,
very early, they came to summon me. Ten men came and ten men went to usher me
into the palace. My forehead touched the ground between the sphinxes, and the
royal children stood in the gateway to meet me. The courtiers who usher
through the forecourt set me on the way to the audience-hall. I found his
majesty on the great throne in a kiosk of gold. Stretched out on my belly, I
did not know myself before him, while this god greeted me pleasantly.» (2006LichtheimM:1.231). In the «Story of Sinuhe», we also find the Pharaoh’s decree:
«Therefore, return to Egypt! You shall behold the royal palace where you were
raised, kiss the earth at the Great Gates, and join the ranks of the
Sovereign's friends» (1978KorostovtsevMA:102). «In the Old and Middle Kingdoms,
people loved to recount the execution of royal commissions and significant
deeds, often citing documents, especially royal letters» (1915ТураевБА:47).
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17 And Pharaoh said unto Joseph, Say unto thy brothers, This do ye;
load your beasts, and go, get you unto the land of Canaan; … 25 And they went
up out of Egypt, and came into the land of Canaan, unto Jacob their father. |
Ethnopolitical Isomorphism. The presence of the term «Canaan» is characteristic of diplomatic
correspondence and legal archives of the 18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to
Askudum (Mari archive, ARM 26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…>
awaiting the arrival of the Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In a letter
(ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim,
«Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). The
Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). «It is thus evident that in mid-18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same arca where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398). «The earliest occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the
Old Testament is in the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the
middle of the fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu, which is attested by the
documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is supposed to be a Hurrian
word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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19 And thou art commanded, This do ye, take unto yourselves out of the
land of Egypt wagons for your little ones, and for your wives, and take up
your father, and come. … 21 And the children of Israel did so ; and Joseph
gave them wagons, according to the command of Pharaoh; and he gave them
provision for the way. … 27 But when they told him all the words of Joseph,
which he had said unto them; and when he saw the wagons which Joseph had sent
to carry him : the spirit of Jacob their father revived. |
Zooarchaeological and chronological parallelism. A shared period of the
spread of horses, chariots, and wagons in the Near East.
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Mesopotamia, Anatolia Wagons and horses are depicted on the Sumerian «Standard of Ur»,
created during the Early Dynastic period, which dominated in 2550–2400 BCE
(2003AruzJ_WallenfelsR). The light chariot became widespread in the Eastern Mediterranean and
throughout the Near East in the second millennium BCE
(2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC). In letter ARM 26/1 47 (Royal Archive of Mari), it is reported that
Askudum divided the cattle and horses collected from the Canaanites into
herds (1988CharpinD_LafontB:190-199, archibab.fr). In letter ARM 26/2 533,
also from the Royal Archive of Mari, the author writes about ongoing
negotiations for the supply of white Anatolian horses
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:526-527, archibab.fr). In a letter from the
royal archives of Mari (ARM 26/2 285), we learn of a shortage of cedar wood
for chariots used in rituals (1988CharpinD_LafontB:15-18). The Mesopotamian
archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). According to the «Hittite Laws» (17th–12th centuries BCE): «§ 71 If
anyone finds a (stray) ox, horse, mule (or) donkey, he shall drive it to the
king’s gate.» (1997HoffnerJrHA:80).
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19 And thou art commanded, This do ye, take unto yourselves out of the
land of Egypt wagons for your little ones, and for your wives, and take up
your father, and come. … 21 And the children of Israel did so ; and Joseph
gave them wagons, according to the command of Pharaoh; and he gave them
provision for the way. … 27 But when they told him all the words of Joseph,
which he had said unto them; and when he saw the wagons which Joseph had sent
to carry him : the spirit of Jacob their father revived.
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Zooarchaeological and chronological parallelism. A shared period of the
spread of horses, chariots, and wagons in the Egypt.
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Egypt A horse skeleton excavated in Buhen, in the southern Nile Valley, is
dated approximately to 2055–1650 BCE (2014TatomirR). The document known as
«Be a Scribe» (Middle Kingdom?) implies the presence of horses: «The poor man
is turned into a driver - and the stable manager supervises him» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:248). In the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (attributed by V.V. Struve to the
Second Intermediate Period), we find an indirect reference to horses:
«Behold, he who had no team now possesses a herd» (1978КоростовцевМА:236). The light chariot appeared in Egypt only during the Hyksos period
(2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC).
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21 And the children of Israel did so ; and Joseph gave them wagons,
according to the command of Pharaoh; and he gave them provision for the way.
… 28 And Israel said, Enough; Joseph my son is yet alive : I will go and see
him before I die.
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Onomastic authenticity. The identified structural similarity in the use of the theophoric
element «El» confirms that the biblical text belongs to the authentic Near
Eastern naming tradition of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia The theophoric element «El» in personal names is frequently encountered
in the documents of the Mari archives. An example is a letter (ARM 2 23) from
Ibal-pi-El to his lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). In a letter (ARM 26/1
140) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim, 'Yakhsib-El, the Hanaean' is
mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Yeskit-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 386),
informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa (1988CharpinD_LafontB:205).
Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his brother Shunukhra-Khalu,
recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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22 To all of them he gave to each changes of raiment; but to Benjamin
he gave three hundred pieces of silver, and five changes of raiment.
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The borrowing
of the word «clothing».
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It is quite possible that all such
words are linked to the Sumerian and Akkadian word for «flax» with an
Anatolian ending (2021NoonanBJ:137-138). |
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22 To all of them he gave to each changes of raiment; but to Benjamin
he gave three hundred pieces of silver, and five changes of raiment. |
Investiture Through Garment. The similarity lies in a
tradition where the sovereign’s gift of clothing serves as a symbol of high
patronage, official recognition of merit, and a change in the recipient’s
social status. |
Mesopotamia Correspondence from the Mari archives mentions clothing as a gift.
Specifically, Yakkim-Addu writes (ARM 26/1 206) to Zimri-Lim regarding the
rewarding of an oracle for a favorable omen: «For the sake of my Lord’s salvation,
I have invested him in a garment» (1988CharpinD:434-435, archibab.fr). In a letter (ARM 26/2 372), Atamrum describes the gifts from King
Hammurabi delivered by officials: «clothing, jewelry, a headdress, a throne,
and various items; and I rejoiced greatly. I donned the clothing and jewelry
and took my seat upon the throne» (1988CharpinD_LafontB:179-182, archibab.fr). The Mesopotamian Mari archive dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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26 And they told him, saying, Joseph is yet alive; and that he is governor over all the land of Egypt. But his heart remained cold, for he believed them not. 27 But when they told him all the words of Joseph, which he had said unto them; and when he saw the wagons which Joseph had sent to carry him : the spirit of Jacob their father revived. 28 And Israel said, Enough; Joseph my son is yet alive : I will go and see him before I die. |
Psychological Reaction to
Rehabilitation. A similarity is evident in the description of an identical emotional
transition from profound distrust and fear to ecstatic jubilation upon
receiving confirmation of the ruler's favor and salvation. |
Egypt In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «This decree reached me while I was standing in the midst of my tribe. When it had been read to me, I threw myself on my belly. Having touched the soil, I spread it on my chest. I strode around my camp shouting: "What compares with this which is done to a servant whom his heart led astray to alien lands? Truly good is the kindness that saves me from death! Your ka will grant me to reach my end, my body being at home!"» (2006LichtheimM:1.230).
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26 And they told him, saying, Joseph is yet alive; and that he is
governor over all the land of Egypt. But his heart remained cold, for he
believed them not. |
Psychological parallel. A direct parallel between the «heart» and the inner «self», endowing
this organ with the functions of rational thinking, moral judgment, and the
source of the individual's volitional decisions.
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Egypt The heart as an organ of thought, will, and ethical choice is
repeatedly mentioned in ancient Egyptian texts. Pyramid of Pepi I (6th Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE) Recitation № 519
«Content is Atum, the gods’ father; content are Shu and Tefnut; content are
Geb and Nut; content are Osiris and [Isis]; content are Seth and Neith;»
(2007AllenJP:183). Pyramid of
Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE) Recitation № 404 «You shall take (them) for him to every place
in which his heart might wish to be.»
(2007AllenJP:274). Pyramid of
Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE) Recitation № 319 «His son shall provide this Pepi Neferkare
with life; he shall make it happy for his heart, he shall make it pleasant
for his heart; he shall establish for him the Nile Valley, he shall establish
for him the Delta;» (2007AllenJP:265). Pyramid of Unis (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353-2323 BCE) Recitation
№ 180: «Unis
is the sky’s bull, with terrorizing in his heart, who lives on the evolution
of every god, who eats their bowels when they have come from the Isle of
Flame with their belly filled with magic.» (2007AllenJP:51). Pyramid Texts (2350-2175 BCE) in Utterance
№ 650 (1836a-b): «He equips N. with life; he makes his heart rejoice; he
makes his heart sweet.» (1952MercerSAB:450). Coffin
Texts
(2134-2040 BCE) Spell № 64 «…see, I bring it to you that your hear may be made
glad by means of it; I bring to you the Eye of Horus, that your heart may be
made glad by means of it.» (1973FaulknerRO:60). Coffin
Texts
(2134-2040 BCE) Spell № 148 «The lightning flash strikes, the gods are afraid,
Isis wakes pregnant with the seed of her brother Osiris. She is uplifted,
(even she) the widow, and her heart is glad with the seed of her brother
Osiris. She says: 'O you gods, I am Isis, the sister of Osiris, who wept for
the father of the gods, (even) Osiris who judged the slaughterings of the Two
Lands.»
(1973FaulknerRO:125). On the Shabaka Stone (British Museum № 498. The text is a work of the
Old Kingdom) it is written: «There took shape in the heart, there took shape
on the tongue the form of Atum. For the very great one is Ptah, who gave
[life] to all the gods and their kas through this heart and through this
tongue» (2006LichtheimM:1.51,54). «The Instruction Addressed to Kagemni» (the latter part of the 6th
Dynasty): «When you drink with a drunkard, Take when his heart is content.
Don't fall upon meat by the side of a glutton, Take when he gives you, don't
refuse it, Then it will soothe.» (2006LichtheimM:1.60). «The Instruction of Ptahhotep» (the latter part of the 6th Dynasty):
«He whose heart obeys his belly Puts contempt of himself in place of love,
His heart is bald, his body unanointed; The great-hearted is god-given, He
who obeys his belly belongs to the enemy.» (2006LichtheimM:1.67); «A man in
distress wants to pour out his heart More than that his case be won»
(2006LichtheimM:1.68); «Dispute with him after a time, Test his heart in
conversation; If what he has seen escapes him, If he does a thing that annoys
you, Be yet friendly with him, don't attack;» (2006LichtheimM:1.72). «The Complaints of Khakheperre-sonb» (Middle Kingdom): «He said to his heart: Come, my heart,
I speak to you, Answer me my sayings!» (2006LichtheimM:1.147-148). «The Tale of the Shipwrecked
Sailor» (Middle Kingdom): «Each of them-his heart was stouter, his arm
stronger than his mate's.» (2006LichtheimM:1.213). «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom):
«Then
his heart was happy beyond everything, and they sat down to a day of
feasting.» (2006LichtheimM:1.221). In the myth of «The Destruction of
Mankind» the goddess Sekhmet says to the god Re: «As you live for me, I have
overpowered mankind, and it was balm to my heart.» (2006LichtheimM:2.199).
|
|
26 And they told him, saying, Joseph is yet alive; and that he is
governor over all the land of Egypt. But his heart remained cold, for he
believed them not. |
Psychological Parallel A direct parallel between the «heart» and the inner «self», endowing
this organ with the functions of rational thinking, moral judgment, and the
source of the individual’s volitional decisions.
|
Mesopotamia In the Sumerian poem («Myth of Enki and Ninmah») we read: Enki says to his mother, Nammu, the
primeval sea: «O my mother, the creature whose name you uttered, it exists,
Bind upon it the image (?) of the gods; Mix the heart of the clay that is
over the abyss, The good and princely fashioners will thicken the clay, You,
do you bring the limbs into existence;» (1981KramerS:106-107). The tablet with the myth of
Enki and Ninmah is dated to the Old Babylonian period. (1969BenitoCA:1).
|
23 And to his father he sent after this manner: ten asses laden with the best things of Egypt, and ten she-asses laden with corn and bread and other food for his father, for the journey.
A burial dating back to the early First Dynasty (c. 3000 BC) contains
the «earliest direct evidence of use of donkeys for transport rather than for
meat. They also provide the earliest secure, non-size-based evidence for
domestic donkeys.» (2008RosselS_O'ConnorD). In the mastaba at Tarkhan (First
Dynasty, c. 2850 BC) a grave was found containing the skeletons of three
donkeys «these were the favourite animals buried with the master, much as the house
hold were buried with the kings of this age.» (1914PetrieWMF). The most likely
ancestors of the domestic donkey are the African wild asses
(2004Beja-PereiraA_LuikartG).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 45
Linguistic
and Providential Continuity
The
linguistic evolution of the term «Pharaoh» and the literary motifs in the «Story
of Sinuhe» indicate a profound connection between the Biblical text and
Egyptian tradition, originating in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1783 BCE), when
the term designated the royal residence, and extending into the New Kingdom
(post-1550 BCE), when it emerged as a formal title for the monarch. An
identical concept of «divine providence» in both texts underscores that the
hero's elevation following exile is not a matter of chance, but the realization
of a sacred plan for salvation. This parallel serves as a critical marker for
dating the narrative’s foundation, linking it to the period of transformation
in Egyptian despotism and the development of theological thought regarding
divine mercy.
The
Sacred Pentad Tradition
The use of
the number «five» to designate a privileged portion (as in the case of Benjamin
in Gen. 45:22) finds direct parallels in the Egyptian Pyramid Texts (2350–2175
BCE) and Coffin Texts (c. 2134–2040 BCE), where «five portions» symbolize
divine sustenance and temple status. This tradition is deeply rooted in the
Egyptian calendar through the five epagomenal days, indicating the Biblical
author’s adoption of a specific sacred metric characteristic of the Old and
Middle Kingdoms. Consequently, the numerological aspect of the text serves as
an indicator of an archaic cultural stratum integrated into the Joseph
narrative.
Climatic
and Societal Collapse
The
detailed description of famine and ecological disaster in Genesis 45 aligns
with a corpus of Egyptian texts—ranging from the Middle Kingdom (12th Dynasty) «Admonitions
of Ipuwer» and «Prophecies of Neferti» to the Second Intermediate Period «Tempest
Stele»—which document large-scale social distress and abnormal meteorological
phenomena. These parallels, particularly the mention of the Nile’s failure and
celestial obscuration, suggest that the biblical account reflects historical
climate shifts in the Eastern Mediterranean, possibly linked to the Minoan
eruption (c. 1600–1550 BCE) or broader shifts in the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Consequently, the narrative integrates authentic records of catastrophic food
shortages and environmental crises, providing a robust
historical-climatological basis for dating the traditions of the Joseph cycle
to the transitional era between the Middle and New Kingdoms.
Sacral-Political
Legitimation of Power
The
narrative of Joseph’s elevation (Gen. 45:8–9) mirrors the Egyptian mythologeme
of the «filial heir» (Horus-Osiris), where the son’s administrative triumph and
public recognition serve to restore the father’s status and household. This
parallel is anchored in the Old and Middle Kingdom traditions, specifically the
Coffin Texts (c. 2134–2040 BCE), which define Horus as the «successor» and «vindicator»
of his father’s legacy through the acquisition of the throne. By adopting this
specific model of legitimation—characterized by the execution of royal
commissions and the documentation of high office as seen in the Inscription of
Weni (late 24th century BCE)—the text reflects an authentic Egyptian political
theology that reached its peak of literary expression during the early 2nd
millennium BCE.
The
Meritocratic Model of Social Mobility
Joseph’s
elevation from a foreign captive to the highest administrative office (Gen.
45:8) aligns with the historical phenomenon of meritocratic advancement
documented throughout the Middle and New Kingdoms (c. 2040–1070 BCE). Evidence
from 13th Dynasty stelae (e.g., Senebsumai and Henmes) and didactic literature
like the «Instruction of Khety» confirms a societal shift where intellectual
proficiency and scribal literacy—rather than noble birth—became the primary
vehicles for governing others. This socio-political reality, further echoed in
New Kingdom autobiographies (e.g., Ankhurmes under Merneptah), identifies the
Joseph narrative as a reflection of an authentic Egyptian bureaucratic
tradition that flourished in the mid-to-late 2nd millennium BCE.
Geographic
and Administrative Localization
The
identification of «Goshen» (Gen. 45:10) as a strategic borderland in the
Eastern Nile Delta aligns with the historical topography of the Middle Kingdom
(c. 2040–1783 BCE) and the Second Intermediate Period. References in the «Story
of Sinuhe» to landmarks like the «Sycamore» correlate with the capital of the
20th Nome, Per-Sopdu (Saft el-Hinna), situating the biblical narrative within
an authentic 2nd-millennium BCE geographic framework. This localization to the
eastern frontier reflects a period when the Delta served as a primary zone for
Semitic settlement and administrative oversight, providing a precise
spatial-chronological anchor for the Joseph cycle.
Ethno-Onomastic
and Proximity of Power
The
documentation of the «Benjaminites» in the Mari archives (18th century BCE) as
a distinct West Semitic tribal entity validates the ethno-onomastic
authenticity of the biblical name within a specific Middle Bronze Age
Syrian-Canaanite context. This historical reality is complemented by the shift
in Egyptian court etiquette during the Middle Kingdom, where the «democratization»
of royal accessibility allowed for direct interaction between the monarch and
the administrative elite. By depicting Benjamin’s prominence and Joseph’s
unmediated access to the throne, the narrative accurately reflects the
socio-political transformation of the 2nd millennium BCE, where royal favor
(joining the «Sovereign's friends») and documented tribal identities became
central to the geopolitical landscape of the Near East.
Ethnopolitical
Isomorphism
The
systematic application of the term «Canaan» (Gen. 45:25) as a distinct
geopolitical and ethnic designation aligns with the diplomatic lexicon of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. Evidence from the Mari archives (c. 1750 BCE) and the
Alalakh Idrimi inscription (c. 1500 BCE) confirms that «Canaanite» served as a
standardized identifier for West Semitic populations and their territory during
the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Furthermore, the linguistic link to the
Hurrian Kinahhu (attested at Nuzi, 15th century BCE) provides a narrow
chronological window for the term’s integration into the regional
administrative discourse. Consequently, this ethnopolitical terminology serves
as a precise diagnostic marker, situating the narrative’s historical horizon
within the transformative period of the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Zooarchaeological
and Technological Parallelism
The mention
of wagons and transport in Genesis 45:19–21 aligns with the technological
landscape of the second millennium BCE, specifically the proliferation of
horses and chariots across the Near East. Zooarchaeological evidence, such as
the horse remains from Buhen (c. 2055–1650 BCE), and textual references in the
Mari Archives (18th century BCE) and the Hittite Laws, confirm that the
equestrian and vehicular infrastructure described in the biblical text was a
reality of the Middle Bronze II and Hyksos periods. The transition from heavy
Sumerian wagons to the light chariots and specialized stables mentioned in
Egyptian sources like the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» provides a clear
chronological terminus post quem, situating the narrative's material culture
within the transitional era of the 18th–16th centuries BCE.
Psychological
and Anthropological Parallelism
The
description of Joseph’s emotional and cognitive state (Gen. 45:26–27), where
the «heart» (Heb. leb) functions as the seat of rational perception and
volition, find a precise anthropological equivalent in Egyptian texts from the
Old and Middle Kingdoms. From the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350–2175 BCE) to the
Middle Kingdom didactic literature, the heart (ib) is consistently depicted as
the organ that «rejoices,» «obeys,» and «is made content,» serving as the core
of the individual's moral and intellectual identity. By employing this specific
psychological framework—where the heart’s «revival» signifies the transition
from disbelief to the acceptance of a new reality—the Genesis narrative
utilizes an ancient Near Eastern conceptualization of the self that was fully
developed by the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Psychological
and Creative Parallelism
The
conceptualization of the «heart» as the epicenter of life, volition, and
rational consciousness in Genesis 45 (Gen. 45:26) finds a profound parallel in
Mesopotamian cosmogony, specifically within the Old Babylonian (c. 1894–1595
BCE) myth of Enki and Ninmah. In this tradition, the «heart of the clay» serves
as the essential, animated core from which human existence is fashioned,
suggesting that the «heart» was viewed not merely as a biological organ, but as
the seat of the divine image and individual essence. By endowing the heart with
the power of both creative potential and cognitive response, the biblical
narrative operates within a shared Near Eastern anthropological framework that
was firmly established by the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
General
Conclusion
The
conducted research demonstrates an exceptional synchronicity between the
Biblical narrative and the historical realities of the Near East and Egypt during
the second millennium BCE.
Linguistic
and Administrative Authenticity: The evolution of the title «Pharaoh,» the
application of the ethnonym «Benjaminites» (consistent with the Mari archives,
18th century BCE), and the use of the geopolitical term «Canaan» indicate that
the text is deeply rooted in the diplomatic lexicon of the Middle and Late
Bronze Ages.
Technological
and Social Context: Descriptions of transport infrastructure (wagons,
chariots), the proliferation of horses, and the meritocratic model of social
mobility («from the lower classes to the elite») find direct parallels in
monuments from the Hyksos era and the early New Kingdom.
Cultural-Psychological
Stratum: The concepts of the «Sacred Pentad» (the numeral five as a sacral
portion), «Divine Providential Ordinance» (analogous to the Story of Sinuhe),
and the «Psychology of the Heart» as the seat of will and reason (found in
Mesopotamian and Egyptian texts of the 19th–15th centuries BCE) confirm that
the author operated within cognitive models characteristic of this period.
Climatological
Markers: The description of a «food collapse» correlates with data regarding
droughts and ecological catastrophes (such as the environmental impacts of the
Thera/Minoan eruption) recorded in Egyptian papyri and stelae of the 17th–16th
centuries BCE.
Final
Verdict
Based on the convergence of all presented evidence, the most probable period for the formation of the historical and cultural core of Genesis 45 is the 18th–16th centuries BCE (Middle Bronze Age II / Second Intermediate Period in Egypt). The text demonstrates a detailed knowledge of Egyptian protocols, the geography of the Eastern Delta, and a social structure that was most fluid precisely during the era of Hyksos dominance and the early 18th Dynasty. While the final literary redaction may have occurred later, the factual substratum of the chapter—encompassing anthroponyms, technologies, and climatic anomalies—is an authentic reflection of Near Eastern realities in the middle of the second millennium BCE.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 22, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 45. About round ligament of femur. March 22, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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