English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 45
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 45 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 45 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 45 Analysis
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Excerpts from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:57-59)
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Type of
Similarity and Justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels,
Analogies, Similarity, Borrowings, Inversions)
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2 And he raised
his voice in weeping ; and the Egyptians heard it, and the house of Pharaoh
heard it. … 8 So now it was not you that sent me hither, but God; and he hath
made me a father to Pharaoh, and a lord for all his house, and a ruler
throughout all the land of Egypt. … 16 And the report thereof was heard in
Pharaoh's house, saying, Joseph's brothers are come; and it was pleasing in
the eyes of Pharaoh, and in the eyes of his servants. 17 And Pharaoh said
unto Joseph, Say unto thy brothers, This do ye; load your beasts, and go, get
you unto the land of Canaan; … 21 And the children of Israel did so ; and
Joseph gave them wagons, according to the command of Pharaoh; and he gave
them provision for the way.
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The Borrowing the Word «Pharaoh» |
The term «Pharaoh» derives from an Egyptian word that
originally designated the palace or the residence of the king and his
administration. By the 12th Dynasty, it became associated with the three
wishes following the royal name (life, prosperity, health), and by the New
Kingdom, the term began to be used as a title for the king himself
(2021NoonanBJ:183).
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5 But now be not
grieved, nor be angry with yourselves, that ye sold me hither; for in order
to preserve life did God send me before you. … 7 And God hath thus sent me
before you to prepare for you a permanence on the earth, and to save your
lives by a great deliverance. 8 So now it was not you that sent me hither,
but God; and he hath made me a father to Pharaoh, and a lord for all his
house, and a ruler throughout all the land of Egypt.
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Divine Providential Ordinance The similarity lies in the
interpretation of the hero's personal hardships and subsequent elevation not
as mere coincidence, but as the result of a divine design aimed at mercy and salvation. |
Egypt In the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «Thus I became
great, wealthy in goods, rich in herds. It was the god who acted, so as to
show mercy to one with whom he had been angry, whom he had made stray abroad.
For today his heart
is appeased.» (2006LichtheimM:1.228).
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6 For these two
years hath the famine been already in the land; and there are yet five years,
in which there will be neither ploughing nor harvesting. … 11 And I will
maintain thee there; for there are yet five years of famine ; lest thou, and
thy household, and all that thou hast, come to poverty. … 22 To all of them
he gave to each changes of raiment; but to Benjamin he gave three hundred
pieces of silver, and five changes of raiment.
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Sacred Pentad The similarity is manifested in the
use of the number «five» as a symbol of a divine or privileged portion,
defining a specific ritual and social rank. |
Egypt In Egyptian
calendrical and religious traditions, the Egyptians distinguished specific
«epagomenal days» added to the year. These are defined as: «The five last
days of the Egyptian civil calendar, so called because they are additional to
the twelve 30–day months of the calendar. Each of the five days was
celebrated as the birth of a god: Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis, and Nephthys»
(2007AllenJP:430). The numeral
«five», as a sacred number, begins to appear in the «Pyramid Texts» (dating
from 2350–2175 BCE). For instance, Utterance № 35 (27d-e) states: «Thy mouth
is the mouth of a sucking calf on the day of his birth. Five pellets of
natron of the North, Wadi Natrûn (št-p.t)» (1952MercerSAB:49). Similarly,
Utterance № 45 (35a) records: «Osiris N., take to thyself the white teeth of
Horus which equip thy mouth. Five white cakes» (1952MercerSAB:51). In another
instance, Utterance № 45 (121b-c) reads: «For he (N.) is indeed the great
bull which smote Kns.t. For to N. indeed belong the five portions of bread,
liquid, cake, in the mansion» (1952MercerSAB:86). This numerical significance
persisted in later ritual texts. In Utterance № 173 from the «Coffin Texts»
collection (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), we read: «I am the Bull, the Old One of
Kenzet, in charge of the five (sic) portions in this temple; five portions
are above with Re, five portions are below with Osiris» (1973FaulknerRO:148).
Additionally, Spell № 181 mentions: «Bull with curly hair, having five
portions in the House of Horus and two portions in the House of Seth»
(1973FaulknerRO:152).
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6 For these two
years hath the famine been already in the land; and there are yet five years,
in which there will be neither ploughing nor harvesting. … 11 And I will
maintain thee there; for there are yet five years of famine ; lest thou, and
thy household, and all that thou hast, come to poverty.
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Climatically Determined Catastrophe A similarity in their perception of
famine as a fundamental threat to societal existence, serving as the primary
trigger for shifts in the territorial and social status of populations during
the early 2nd millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia In the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh, famine is invoked in an address to
one of the gods: «Instead of your bringing on the Flood, would that famine
had occurred to slay the land!» (1989KovacsMG:103). The standard version of the
«Epic of Gilgamesh» was first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600
BCE) (1989KovacsMG:xxii). |
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6 For these two
years hath the famine been already in the land; and there are yet five years,
in which there will be neither ploughing nor harvesting. … 11 And I will
maintain thee there; for there are yet five years of famine ; lest thou, and
thy household, and all that thou hast, come to poverty.
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Description of the Food Collapse The similarity is observed in the detailed recording of the social
consequences of a large-scale food deficit. In the context of the biblical
narrative, the famine could only have been caused by climate change in the
Eastern Mediterranean region. |
Egypt In contrast to the splendor of festivals, Egyptian literature also
preserves harrowing accounts of ecological collapse. In the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we find: «Lo, Hapy
inundates and none plow for him, All say, "We don't know what has
happened in the land." Lo, women are barren, none conceive, Khnum does
not fashion because of the state of the land. <…> Lo, the great hunger
and suffer, <…> Lo, [one eats] herbs, washed down with water, Birds
find neither fruit nor herbs, One takes --- from the mouth of pigs, No face
is bright ... hunger.» (2006LichtheimM:1.151,154–155). Similar apocalyptic themes appear
in other Middle Kingdom texts. In
the «Prophecies of Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty) it is stated: «None speak,
none shed tears: "How fares this land!" The sundisk, covered,
shines not for people to see, One cannot live when clouds conceal, All are
numbs from lack of it. I shall describe what is before me, I do not foretell
what does not come: Dry is the river of Egypt, One crosses the water on foot
; One seeks water for ships to sail on, Its course having turned into shore
land. <…> Its course having turned into shore land. Shoreland will turn
into water, Watercourse back into shoreland. South wind will combat
northwind, Sky will lack the single wind. <…> The grain is low-the
measure is large, It is measured to overflowing. Re will withdraw from
mankind: Though he will rise at his hour. One will not know when noon has
come; No one will discern his shadow, No face will be dazzled by seeing
[him], No eyes will moisten with water. He will be in the sky like the moon,»
(2006LichtheimM:1.141,142–143). Beyond literary
tropes, several historical documents record actual instances of abnormal
weather. In the «Hearst Medical Papyrus», written under Amenhotep I,
incantation № 170 implies a flood in northern Egypt, possibly associated with
a tsunami resulting from the Minoan eruption (1992GoedickeH:60). Furthermore,
the «Tempest Stele» (early 18th Dynasty) records abnormal weather phenomena
likely observed over several years (2014RitnerRK_MoellerN:14). Finally, in
the «Rhind Mathematical Papyrus», compiled under King Apepi (Second
Intermediate Period), an account is given of unusual thunder and rain that
occurred during a specific period (1923PeetTE:129). The «Famine Stela»
testifies that during a period of social distress, Pharaoh Djoser (3rd
Dynasty) ordered immediate sacrifices to be brought to Khnum. That same night,
Khnum appeared to him in a dream. The Pharaoh swore a sacred oath to the god
that his altars would henceforth never be impoverished (2004РакИВ:158). This inscription, apparently made during the
Ptolemaic era, records a period of food shortages. In the «Instruction
Addressed to King Merikare» (Middle Kingdom) speaks of prudent generosity in
times of famine: «They come to you with tribute, with gifts: I have acted
like the forefathers: If one has no grain to give, Be kind, since they are
humble before you. Be sated with your bread, your beer, Granite comes to you
unhindered (2006LichtheimM:1.102).
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8 So now it was
not you that sent me hither, but God; and he hath made me a father to
Pharaoh, and a lord for all his house, and a ruler throughout all the land of
Egypt. 9 Haste ye, and go up to my father, and say unto him, Thus hath said
thy son Joseph, God hath made me lord of all Egypt; come down unto me, tarry
not. … 25 And they went up out of Egypt, and came into the land of Canaan,
unto Jacob their father. 26 And they told him, saying, Joseph is yet alive;
and that he is governor over all the land of Egypt. But his heart remained
cold, for he believed them not.
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Sacral-Political Legitimation of Power The similarity is manifested in the use of the «son-heir» mythologeme,
who, through his elevation and the public display of his acquired
administrative functions, restores the status and well-being of his father
(analogy of Joseph—Jacob and Horus—Osiris). |
Egypt The inheritance
of Joseph from his father is prefigured by the mythological precedent of
Horus from Osiris, despite the claims of Seth. In Spell №. 5 from the
collection of «Coffin Texts» (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), it is explicitly stated:
«Horus, the successor of Osiris» (1973FaulknerRO:3). Similarly, in Spell № 42–43 of the «Coffin Texts»,
there is an unambiguous allusion to the inheritance of Osiris's throne:
«Thoth having given to him the thrones of Geb, while Horus is heir. Horus is
concerned with the business of the vindication of his father N»
(1973FaulknerRO:34). This emphasis on
legitimate succession and service is reflected in administrative records. «In
the Old and Middle Kingdoms, people loved to recount the execution of royal
commissions and significant deeds, often citing documents, especially royal
letters» (1915ТураевБА:47). For example, in the
autobiographical «Inscription of Weni» (Old Kingdom, late 24th century BCE),
the official boasts of his significance: «Never before had such an office
been given to a mere servant. ... I administered affairs in the South. There
has never been a ruler there like me» (1978КоростовцевМА:83).
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8 So now it was
not you that sent me hither, but God; and he hath made me a father to
Pharaoh, and a lord for all his house, and a ruler throughout all the land of
Egypt. 9 Haste ye, and go up to my father, and say unto him, Thus hath said
thy son Joseph, God hath made me lord of all Egypt; come down unto me, tarry
not. NB! 41:40 Thou shalt
be over my house, and according to thy word shall all my people be ruled;
only in regard to the throne will I be greater than thou.
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Meritocratic Model of Social Mobility The similarity lies in the description of the historical phenomenon of
the elevation of an individual of non-noble origin, where intellectual
abilities (wisdom, literacy) allowed a person from the «lower classes» to
occupy a high administrative position in the state.
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Egypt On stele CG 20718,
dedicated to the 13th Dynasty official Senebsumai as treasurer, mention is
also made of Henmes, «chamber keeper and cupbearer», who was a prominent middle-ranking
official during the reigns of Sobekhotep III, Neferhotep I, and Sobekhotep IV
(2019StefanovićD:275–276). The prestige of this profession is highlighted
in the «Instruction of Khety, son
of Duauf, to his son Pepi» (Middle Kingdom) where it is stated: «You will not see
anyone who does not have overseers over him. Only the scribe himself governs
others» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:244). Indeed, during the Middle Kingdom, «people of entirely non-noble
origin began to enter the scribal profession. The same can be said for the
New Kingdom» (2001КоростовцевМА:53–54). This sentiment is echoed in
«Papyrus Anastasi III» (New Kingdom), which contains the appeal: «turn to the
activity of a scribe, and you will lead everyone» (2001КоростовцевМА:217). A
practical example of such mobility is found during the time of Pharaoh Merneptah
(19th Dynasty), specifically in the case of a high priest in Thinis named
Ankhurmes, who states in his autobiography: «I was a poor man, taken into
school» (2001КоростовцевМА:24–25).
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10 And thou shalt
dwell in the land of Goshen, and thou shalt be near unto me, thou, and thy
children, and thy children's children, and thy flocks, and thy herds, and all
that is thine. |
Geographic and Administrative Localization The similarity is found in the mention of the specific toponym
«Goshen», identified as a borderland—a region in the eastern part of the Nile
Delta suitable for settlement and animal husbandry. |
Egypt A.H. Gardiner
(1924) suggested that the biblical locality «Goshen» should be sought in the
eastern Nile Delta. According to E. Naville, the land of «Goshen» (Gesem) was
located in the east, «not far» from the country. Furthermore, «at the western
entrance to the Goshen Valley, with its capital Pe(r)-sopd(u) («House of
Sopdu»; also called «House of the Sycamore»), modern Saft el-Hinna», was
located the twentieth nome of the Delta, later designated as the «Arabian
nome» (2021МюллерМ:158). Topographical references to this region also appear
in literary works; specifically, in the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom),
it is stated: «I crossed Maaty near Sycamore; I reached Isle-of-Snefru»
(2006LichtheimM:1.224).
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12 And, behold,
your own eyes see, and the eyes of my brother Benjamin, that it is my mouth
that speaketh unto you. … 14 And he fell upon his brother Benjamin's neck,
and wept; and Benjamin wept upon his neck. … 22 To all of them he gave to
each changes of raiment; but to Benjamin he gave three hundred pieces of
silver, and five changes of raiment.
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Ethno-Onomastic Authenticity The similarity is manifested in the use of the name «Benjamin» (Binyamin)
as a documented anthroponym and ethnonym within the Near East during the
Middle Bronze Age.
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Mesopotamia As documented in the correspondence from the Mari archives, mentions the
Benjaminite tribes, their kings, and princes, who lived in proximity to the
Bedouins of Canaan. Specifically, the author of a letter (ARM 26/1 282)
reminds Zimri-Lim: «Two Canaanites must be brought alive to the border and
mutilated there. They must go alive to the Benjaminites and tell them that my
Lord has captured the city of Mishlan by force...» (1988CharpinD:582–583, archibab.fr). Furthermore, a certain Ishi-Addu, in a letter (ARM
26/1 121), conveys the words of oracles: «Go to Dur-Yahdun-Lim and verify the
prophecies concerning the inhabitants of Qatna and the Zalmakkum, relating to
the Benjaminites. If, when Zimri-Lim and his troops set out on a campaign...
the Benjaminites will surely form a solid block with their forces and [...]
and besiege Dur-Yahdun-Lim» (1988CharpinD:287–288, archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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17 And Pharaoh
said unto Joseph, Say unto thy brothers, This do ye; load your beasts, and
go, get you unto the land of Canaan; 18 And take your father and your
households, and come unto me; and I will give you the best of the land of
Egypt, and ye shall eat the fat of the land. 19 And thou art commanded, This
do ye, take unto yourselves out of the land of Egypt wagons for your little
ones, and for your wives, and take up your father, and come. 20 And do ye
feel no concern on account of your household goods ; for the best of all the
land of Egypt is yours.
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Court Etiquette and Monarchal Accessibility Similarity in the description of direct interaction between the
Pharaoh and the administrative and intellectual elite, characteristic of the
transformation period of Egyptian despotism.
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Egypt «In the Middle Kingdom, pharaohs already communicated with nomarchs
and representatives of the nobility, participated in military campaigns, and
so forth, whereas in the Old Kingdom, only the elite of the elite could
behold the earthly deity» (2004РакИВ:109). A vivid illustration of such an
interaction is found in the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), which
contains a description of
an audience with the king:
«When it dawned, very early, they came to summon me. Ten men came and ten men
went to usher me into the palace. My forehead touched the ground between the
sphinxes, and the royal children stood in the gateway to meet me. The
courtiers who usher through the forecourt set me on the way to the
audience-hall. I found his majesty on the great throne in a kiosk of gold.
Stretched out on my belly, I did not know myself before him, while this god
greeted me pleasantly.» (2006LichtheimM:1.231). The same text preserves the Pharaoh’s decree:
«Therefore, return to Egypt! You shall behold the royal palace where you were
raised, kiss the earth at the Great Gates, and join the ranks of the
Sovereign's friends» (1978КоростовцевМА:102). This culture of documenting
royal favor was widespread, as «in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, people loved
to recount the execution of royal commissions and significant deeds, often
citing documents, especially royal letters» (1915ТураевБА:47).
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17 And Pharaoh
said unto Joseph, Say unto thy brothers, This do ye; load your beasts, and
go, get you unto the land of Canaan; … 25 And they went up out of Egypt, and
came into the land of Canaan, unto Jacob their father. |
Ethnopolitical Isomorphism The presence of the term «Canaan»
is characteristic of diplomatic correspondence and legal archives of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants
of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to Askudum (Mari archive, ARM
26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…> awaiting the arrival of the
Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In another letter (ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu
addressed to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305).
The Mari archive, a key
Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Furthermore, according to Na'aman, «It is
thus evident that in mid–18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same area where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398).
Notably, «The earliest
occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the Old Testament is in
the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the middle of the
fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). Additionally, «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian
Kinahhu, which is attested by the documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and
which is supposed to be a Hurrian word for the colour of purple.»
(1991LemcheNP:26).
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19 And thou art
commanded, This do ye, take unto yourselves out of the land of Egypt wagons
for your little ones, and for your wives, and take up your father, and come.
… 21 And the children of Israel did so ; and Joseph gave them wagons,
according to the command of Pharaoh; and he gave them provision for the way.
… 27 But when they told him all the words of Joseph, which he had said unto
them; and when he saw the wagons which Joseph had sent to carry him : the
spirit of Jacob their father revived. |
Zooarchaeological and Chronological Parallelism A shared period of the spread of horses, chariots, and wagons in the
Near East.
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Mesopotamia,
Anatolia The history of
wheeled transport in the region dates back to the third millennium BCE. Wagons and horses
are depicted on the Sumerian «Standard of Ur», created during the Early
Dynastic period, which
flourished between 2550–2400 BCE (2003AruzJ_WallenfelsR). Subsequently,
the light chariot became widespread in the Eastern Mediterranean and
throughout the Near East in the second millennium BCE
(2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC). The importance of these vehicles is reflected in
royal correspondence; for instance, in a letter from the royal archives of
Mari (ARM 26/2 285), we learn of a shortage of cedar wood specifically
intended for chariots used in rituals (1988CharpinD_LafontB:15–18). The Mari archives
also provide insight into the livestock trade and military logistics of the
era. In letter ARM 26/1 47, it is reported that Askudum divided the cattle
and horses collected from the Canaanites into organized herds
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:190–199, archibab.fr). Furthermore, in letter
ARM 26/2 533, the author writes about ongoing negotiations for the supply of
white Anatolian horses (1988CharpinD_LafontB:526–527, archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Legal codes of
the period further emphasize the value of these animals. According to the
«Hittite Laws» (17th–12th centuries BCE): «§ 71 If anyone finds a (stray) ox,
horse, mule (or) donkey, he shall drive it to the king’s gate»
(1997HoffnerJrHA:80).
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19 And thou art
commanded, This do ye, take unto yourselves out of the land of Egypt wagons
for your little ones, and for your wives, and take up your father, and come.
… 21 And the children of Israel did so ; and Joseph gave them wagons,
according to the command of Pharaoh; and he gave them provision for the way.
… 27 But when they told him all the words of Joseph, which he had said unto
them; and when he saw the wagons which Joseph had sent to carry him : the
spirit of Jacob their father revived.
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Zooarchaeological and Chronological Parallelism A shared period of the spread of horses, chariots, and wagons in the
Egypt.
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Egypt Regarding the early presence of equids in Egypt, a horse skeleton
excavated in Buhen, in the southern Nile Valley, is dated approximately to
2055–1650 BCE (2014TatomirR). Furthermore,
the document known as «Be a Scribe» (Middle Kingdom?) implies the
presence of horses, stating:
«The poor man is turned into a driver – and the stable manager supervises
him» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:248). Similarly, in the «Admonitions
of Ipuwer» (attributed by V.V. Struve to the Second Intermediate Period), we
find an indirect reference to horses: «Behold, he who had no team now
possesses a herd» (1978КоростовцевМА:236). The light
chariot appeared in Egypt only during the Hyksos period
(2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC). Under Hyksos rule, the inhabitants of Avaris and
the surrounding territories formed a sophisticated urban society engaged in
extensive trade—particularly maritime commerce—and the introduction of horses
and chariots into Egypt (2021BietakM_RensburgA).
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21 And the
children of Israel did so ; and Joseph gave them wagons, according to the
command of Pharaoh; and he gave them provision for the way. … 28 And Israel
said, Enough; Joseph my son is yet alive : I will go and see him before I
die.
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Onomastic Authenticity The identified structural similarity
in the use of the theophoric element «El» confirms that the biblical text
belongs to the authentic Near Eastern naming tradition of the early 2nd
millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia The theophoric
element «El» in personal names is frequently encountered in the documents of
the Mari archives. An example is a letter (ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his
lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). Furthermore, in a letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed
to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Hanaean» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Additionally, Yeskit-El, in a
letter (ARM 26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian
source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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22 To all of them
he gave to each changes of raiment; but to Benjamin he gave three hundred
pieces of silver, and five changes of raiment.
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The Borrowing of the Word «Clothing»
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Regarding linguistics, it is quite possible that all such words are
linked to the Sumerian and Akkadian word for «flax» with an Anatolian ending
(2021NoonanBJ:137–138). |
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22 To all of them
he gave to each changes of raiment; but to Benjamin he gave three hundred
pieces of silver, and five changes of raiment. |
Investiture Through Garment The similarity lies in a tradition where the sovereign’s gift of
clothing serves as a symbol of high patronage, official recognition of merit,
and a change in the recipient’s social status. |
Mesopotamia Correspondence from the
Mari archives mentions clothing as a gift. Specifically, Yakkim-Addu writes
(ARM 26/1 206) to Zimri-Lim regarding the rewarding of an oracle for a
favorable omen: «For the sake of my Lord’s salvation, I have invested him in
a garment» (1988CharpinD:434–435, archibab.fr). In another instance, specifically in a lette (ARM 26/2 372), Atamrum describes the gifts from
King Hammurabi delivered by officials: «clothing, jewelry, a headdress, a
throne, and various items; and I rejoiced greatly. I donned the clothing and
jewelry and took my seat upon the throne» (1988CharpinD_LafontB:179–182, archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half
of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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26 And they told
him, saying, Joseph is yet alive; and that he is governor over all the land
of Egypt. But his heart remained cold, for he believed them not. 27 But when
they told him all the words of Joseph, which he had said unto them; and when
he saw the wagons which Joseph had sent to carry him : the spirit of Jacob
their father revived. 28 And Israel said, Enough; Joseph my son is yet alive
: I will go and see him before I die.
|
Psychological Reaction to Rehabilitation A similarity is evident in the description of an identical emotional
transition from profound distrust and fear to ecstatic jubilation upon
receiving confirmation of the ruler's favor and salvation. |
Egypt In the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «This decree
reached me while I was standing in the midst of my tribe. When it had been
read to me, I threw myself on my belly. Having touched the soil, I spread it
on my chest. I strode around my camp shouting: "What compares with this
which is done to a servant whom his heart led astray to alien lands? Truly
good is the kindness that saves me from death! Your ka will grant me to reach
my end, my body being at home!"» (2006LichtheimM:1.230).
|
|
26 And they told
him, saying, Joseph is yet alive; and that he is governor over all the land
of Egypt. But his heart remained cold, for he believed them not. |
Psychological Parallel A direct parallel between the «heart» and the inner «self», endowing
this organ with the functions of rational thinking, moral judgment, and the
source of the individual's volitional decisions.
|
Egypt The heart as an
organ of thought, will, and ethical choice is repeatedly mentioned in ancient
Egyptian texts. In the Pyramid of Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE), Recitation
№ 404, it is stated: «You
shall take (them) for him to every place in which his heart might wish to be.»
(2007AllenJP:274). Recitation № 319 of the same pyramid states: «His son shall provide this
Pepi Neferkare with life; he shall make it happy for his heart, he shall make
it pleasant for his heart; he shall establish for him the Nile Valley, he
shall establish for him the Delta;» (2007AllenJP:265). The Pyramid of Unis (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353–2323 BCE), Recitation
№ 180, describes the king as:
«Unis
is the sky’s bull, with terrorizing in his heart, who lives on the evolution
of every god, who eats their bowels when they have come from the Isle of
flame with their belly filled with magic.» (2007AllenJP:51). The «Pyramid Texts»
(2350–2175 BCE), in Utterance № 650 (1836a-b), state: «He equips N. with life; he makes his heart
rejoice; he makes his heart sweet.» (1952MercerSAB:450). In the «Coffin Texts» (2134–2040
BCE), Spell № 64 reads: «…see, I bring it to you that your heart may be made
glad by means of it; I bring to you the Eye of Horus, that your heart may be
made glad by means of it.» (1973FaulknerRO:60). Spell № 148 adds: «The
lightning flash strikes, the gods are afraid, Isis wakes pregnant with the
seed of her brother Osiris. She is uplifted, (even she) the widow, and her heart
is glad with the seed of her brother Osiris. She says: 'O you gods, I am
Isis, the sister of Osiris, who wept for the father of the gods, (even)
Osiris who judged the slaughterings of the Two Lands.» (1973FaulknerRO:125). Similar sentiments appear in didactic
works, such as the «Instruction Addressed to Kagemni» (6th Dynasty):
«When you drink with a drunkard, Take when his heart is content. Don't fall
upon meat by the side of a glutton, Take when he gives you, don't refuse it,
Then it will soothe.» (2006LichtheimM:1.60). The «Instruction
of Ptahhotep» (6th Dynasty) contains
several such references: «He whose heart obeys his belly Puts contempt
of himself in place of love, His heart is bald, his body unanointed; The
great-hearted is god-given, He who obeys his belly belongs to the enemy.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.67); «A man in distress wants to pour out his heart More
than that his case be won» (2006LichtheimM:1.68); «Dispute with him after a
time, Test his heart in conversation; If what he has seen escapes him, If he
does a thing that annoys you, Be yet friendly with him, don't attack;»
(2006LichtheimM:1.72). In the
«Complaints of Khakheperre-sonb» (Middle
Kingdom), the narrator says: «He said to his heart: Come, my heart, I
speak to you, Answer me my sayings!» (2006LichtheimM:1.147–148). The «Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor»
(Middle Kingdom) notes: «Each of them-his heart was stouter, his arm
stronger than his mate's.» (2006LichtheimM:1.213). The «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom),
states: «Then his heart was happy beyond everything, and they sat down
to a day of feasting.» (2006LichtheimM:1.221). Furthermore, the «Stela of Sehetep-ib-re» (12th Dynasty),
written for an official who served successively under Sesostris III and
Amenemhet III, commands: «Cleave to His Majesty in your hearts! He is
Sia in the hearts, His eyes seek out everybody.» (2006LichtheimM:1.128). The «Satire of the
Trades» (Middle
Kingdom) advises: «I have seen many beatings -
Set your heart on books!» (2006LichtheimM:1.185). Finally, the «Song from the Tomb of King Intet» (Middle Kingdom) exhorts: «To tell of their needs, To
calm our hearts, Until we go where they have gone! Hence rejoice in your
heart! Forgetfulness profits you, Follow your heart as long as you live!» (2006LichtheimM:1.196).
|
|
26 And they told
him, saying, Joseph is yet alive; and that he is governor over all the land
of Egypt. But his heart remained cold, for he believed them not. |
Psychological Parallel A direct parallel between the «heart» and the inner «self», endowing
this organ with the functions of rational thinking, moral judgment, and the
source of the individual’s volitional decisions. |
Mesopotamia In the Sumerian
poem «Myth of
Enki and Ninmah», we read: Enki says to his mother, Nammu, the primeval sea: «O my
mother, the creature whose name you uttered, it exists, Bind upon it the
image (?) of the gods; Mix the heart of the clay that is over the abyss, The
good and princely fashioners will thicken the clay, You, do you bring the
limbs into existence;» (1981KramerS:106–107). The tablet with the «Myth of Enki and
Ninmah» is dated to the Old Babylonian period (1969BenitoCA:1). |
Domestication of the Donkey
23 And to his father he sent after
this manner: ten asses laden with the best things of Egypt, and ten she-asses
laden with cor and bread and other food for his father, for the journey.
A burial dating back to the early
First Dynasty (ca. 3000 BCE) contains the «earliest direct evidence of use of
donkeys for transport rather than for meat. They also provide the earliest
secure, non-size-based evidence for domestic donkeys» (2008RosselS_O'ConnorD).
Furthermore, in the mastaba at Tarkhan (First Dynasty, ca. 2850 BCE), a grave
was found containing the skeletons of three donkeys; the excavators noted that
«these were the favourite animals buried with the master, much as the household
were buried with the kings of this age» (1914PetrieWMF). Genetically, the most
likely ancestors of the domestic donkey are the African wild asses
(2004Beja-PereiraA_LuikartG).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 45
Linguistic
and Providential Continuity
The
linguistic evolution of the term «Pharaoh» and the literary motifs in the «Story
of Sinuhe» indicate a profound connection between the Biblical text and
Egyptian tradition, originating in the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1783 BCE), when
the term designated the royal residence, and extending into the New Kingdom
(post-1550 BCE), when it emerged as a formal title for the monarch. An
identical concept of «divine providence» in both texts underscores that the
hero's elevation following exile is not a matter of chance, but the realization
of a sacred plan for salvation. This parallel serves as a critical marker for
dating the narrative’s foundation, linking it to the period of transformation
in Egyptian despotism and the development of theological thought regarding
divine mercy.
The
Sacred Pentad Tradition
The use of
the number «five» to designate a privileged portion (as in the case of Benjamin
in Gen. 45:22) finds direct parallels in the Egyptian Pyramid Texts (2350–2175
BCE) and Coffin Texts (c. 2134–2040 BCE), where «five portions» symbolize
divine sustenance and temple status. This tradition is deeply rooted in the
Egyptian calendar through the five epagomenal days, indicating the Biblical
author’s adoption of a specific sacred metric characteristic of the Old and
Middle Kingdoms. Consequently, the numerological aspect of the text serves as
an indicator of an archaic cultural stratum integrated into the Joseph
narrative.
Climatic
and Societal Collapse
The
detailed description of famine and ecological disaster in Genesis 45 aligns
with a corpus of Egyptian texts—ranging from the Middle Kingdom (12th Dynasty) «Admonitions
of Ipuwer» and «Prophecies of Neferti» to the Second Intermediate Period «Tempest
Stele»—which document large-scale social distress and abnormal meteorological
phenomena. These parallels, particularly the mention of the Nile’s failure and
celestial obscuration, suggest that the biblical account reflects historical
climate shifts in the Eastern Mediterranean, possibly linked to the Minoan
eruption (c. 1600–1550 BCE) or broader shifts in the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Consequently, the narrative integrates authentic records of catastrophic food
shortages and environmental crises, providing a robust
historical-climatological basis for dating the traditions of the Joseph cycle
to the transitional era between the Middle and New Kingdoms.
Sacral-Political
Legitimation of Power
The
narrative of Joseph’s elevation (Gen. 45:8–9) mirrors the Egyptian mythologeme
of the «filial heir» (Horus-Osiris), where the son’s administrative triumph and
public recognition serve to restore the father’s status and household. This
parallel is anchored in the Old and Middle Kingdom traditions, specifically the
Coffin Texts (c. 2134–2040 BCE), which define Horus as the «successor» and «vindicator»
of his father’s legacy through the acquisition of the throne. By adopting this
specific model of legitimation—characterized by the execution of royal
commissions and the documentation of high office as seen in the Inscription of
Weni (late 24th century BCE)—the text reflects an authentic Egyptian political
theology that reached its peak of literary expression during the early 2nd
millennium BCE.
The
Meritocratic Model of Social Mobility
Joseph’s
elevation from a foreign captive to the highest administrative office (Gen.
45:8) aligns with the historical phenomenon of meritocratic advancement
documented throughout the Middle and New Kingdoms (c. 2040–1070 BCE). Evidence
from 13th Dynasty stelae (e.g., Senebsumai and Henmes) and didactic literature
like the «Instruction of Khety» confirms a societal shift where intellectual
proficiency and scribal literacy—rather than noble birth—became the primary
vehicles for governing others. This socio-political reality, further echoed in
New Kingdom autobiographies (e.g., Ankhurmes under Merneptah), identifies the
Joseph narrative as a reflection of an authentic Egyptian bureaucratic
tradition that flourished in the mid-to-late 2nd millennium BCE.
Geographic
and Administrative Localization
The
identification of «Goshen» (Gen. 45:10) as a strategic borderland in the
Eastern Nile Delta aligns with the historical topography of the Middle Kingdom
(c. 2040–1783 BCE) and the Second Intermediate Period. References in the «Story
of Sinuhe» to landmarks like the «Sycamore» correlate with the capital of the
20th Nome, Per-Sopdu (Saft el-Hinna), situating the biblical narrative within
an authentic 2nd-millennium BCE geographic framework. This localization to the
eastern frontier reflects a period when the Delta served as a primary zone for
Semitic settlement and administrative oversight, providing a precise
spatial-chronological anchor for the Joseph cycle.
Ethno-Onomastic
and Proximity of Power
The
documentation of the «Benjaminites» in the Mari archives (18th century BCE) as
a distinct West Semitic tribal entity validates the ethno-onomastic
authenticity of the biblical name within a specific Middle Bronze Age
Syrian-Canaanite context. This historical reality is complemented by the shift
in Egyptian court etiquette during the Middle Kingdom, where the «democratization»
of royal accessibility allowed for direct interaction between the monarch and
the administrative elite. By depicting Benjamin’s prominence and Joseph’s
unmediated access to the throne, the narrative accurately reflects the
socio-political transformation of the 2nd millennium BCE, where royal favor
(joining the «Sovereign's friends») and documented tribal identities became
central to the geopolitical landscape of the Near East.
Ethnopolitical
Isomorphism
The
systematic application of the term «Canaan» (Gen. 45:25) as a distinct
geopolitical and ethnic designation aligns with the diplomatic lexicon of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. Evidence from the Mari archives (c. 1750 BCE) and the
Alalakh Idrimi inscription (c. 1500 BCE) confirms that «Canaanite» served as a
standardized identifier for West Semitic populations and their territory during
the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Furthermore, the linguistic link to the
Hurrian Kinahhu (attested at Nuzi, 15th century BCE) provides a narrow
chronological window for the term’s integration into the regional
administrative discourse. Consequently, this ethnopolitical terminology serves
as a precise diagnostic marker, situating the narrative’s historical horizon
within the transformative period of the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Zooarchaeological
and Technological Parallelism
The mention
of wagons and transport in Genesis 45:19–21 aligns with the technological
landscape of the second millennium BCE, specifically the proliferation of
horses and chariots across the Near East. Zooarchaeological evidence, such as
the horse remains from Buhen (c. 2055–1650 BCE), and textual references in the
Mari Archives (18th century BCE) and the Hittite Laws, confirm that the
equestrian and vehicular infrastructure described in the biblical text was a
reality of the Middle Bronze II and Hyksos periods. The transition from heavy
Sumerian wagons to the light chariots and specialized stables mentioned in
Egyptian sources like the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» provides a clear
chronological terminus post quem, situating the narrative's material culture
within the transitional era of the 18th–16th centuries BCE.
Psychological
and Anthropological Parallelism
The
description of Joseph’s emotional and cognitive state (Gen. 45:26–27), where
the «heart» (Heb. leb) functions as the seat of rational perception and
volition, find a precise anthropological equivalent in Egyptian texts from the
Old and Middle Kingdoms. From the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350–2175 BCE) to the
Middle Kingdom didactic literature, the heart (ib) is consistently depicted as
the organ that «rejoices,» «obeys,» and «is made content,» serving as the core
of the individual's moral and intellectual identity. By employing this specific
psychological framework—where the heart’s «revival» signifies the transition
from disbelief to the acceptance of a new reality—the Genesis narrative
utilizes an ancient Near Eastern conceptualization of the self that was fully
developed by the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Psychological
and Creative Parallelism
The
conceptualization of the «heart» as the epicenter of life, volition, and
rational consciousness in Genesis 45 (Gen. 45:26) finds a profound parallel in
Mesopotamian cosmogony, specifically within the Old Babylonian (c. 1894–1595
BCE) myth of Enki and Ninmah. In this tradition, the «heart of the clay» serves
as the essential, animated core from which human existence is fashioned,
suggesting that the «heart» was viewed not merely as a biological organ, but as
the seat of the divine image and individual essence. By endowing the heart with
the power of both creative potential and cognitive response, the biblical
narrative operates within a shared Near Eastern anthropological framework that
was firmly established by the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
General
Conclusion
The
conducted research demonstrates an exceptional synchronicity between the
Biblical narrative and the historical realities of the Near East and Egypt during
the second millennium BCE.
Linguistic
and Administrative Authenticity: The evolution of the title «Pharaoh,» the
application of the ethnonym «Benjaminites» (consistent with the Mari archives,
18th century BCE), and the use of the geopolitical term «Canaan» indicate that
the text is deeply rooted in the diplomatic lexicon of the Middle and Late
Bronze Ages.
Technological
and Social Context: Descriptions of transport infrastructure (wagons,
chariots), the proliferation of horses, and the meritocratic model of social
mobility («from the lower classes to the elite») find direct parallels in
monuments from the Hyksos era and the early New Kingdom.
Cultural-Psychological
Stratum: The concepts of the «Sacred Pentad» (the numeral five as a sacral
portion), «Divine Providential Ordinance» (analogous to the Story of Sinuhe),
and the «Psychology of the Heart» as the seat of will and reason (found in
Mesopotamian and Egyptian texts of the 19th–15th centuries BCE) confirm that
the author operated within cognitive models characteristic of this period.
Climatological
Markers: The description of a «food collapse» correlates with data regarding
droughts and ecological catastrophes (such as the environmental impacts of the
Thera/Minoan eruption) recorded in Egyptian papyri and stelae of the 17th–16th
centuries BCE.
Final
Verdict
Based on the convergence of all presented evidence, the most probable period for the formation of the historical and cultural core of Genesis 45 is the 18th–16th centuries BCE (Middle Bronze Age II / Second Intermediate Period in Egypt). The text demonstrates a detailed knowledge of Egyptian protocols, the geography of the Eastern Delta, and a social structure that was most fluid precisely during the era of Hyksos dominance and the early 18th Dynasty. While the final literary redaction may have occurred later, the factual substratum of the chapter—encompassing anthroponyms, technologies, and climatic anomalies—is an authentic reflection of Near Eastern realities in the middle of the second millennium BCE.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 22, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 45. About round ligament of femur. March 22, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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