English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 42
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 42 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 42 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 42 Analysis
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Excerpts from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:53-54)
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Type of
Similarity and Justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels,
Analogies, Similarity, Borrowings, Inversions)
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1 And when Jacob
saw that there was com in Egypt, Jacob said unto his sons. Why do ye look at
one another ? 2 And he said, Behold, I have heard that there is com in Egypt;
get you down thither, and buy for us provision from there, that we may live,
and not die. 3 And ten brothers of Joseph went down to buy corn in Egypt. 4
But Benjamm, Joseph's brother, Jacob sent not with his brothers ; for he
said, Lest mischief befall him. 5 And the sons of Israel came to buy corn
among those that came; for the famine was in the land of Canaan. … 19 If ye
be true men, let one of your brothers remain imprisoned in the house of your
confinement; but ye, go, carry home what you have bought for the want of your
household. … 33 And the man, the lord of the country, said unto us. Hereby
shall I know that ye are true men: leave one of your brothers here with me,
and (the food for) the want of your households take ye and be gone;
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Description of the Food Collapse The similarity is observed in the detailed recording of the social consequences
of a large-scale food deficit. In the context of the biblical narrative, the
famine could only have been caused by climate change in the Eastern
Mediterranean region. |
Egypt In contrast to the splendor of festivals, Egyptian literature also preserves
harrowing accounts of ecological collapse. In the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we find: «Lo, Hapy
inundates and none plow for him, All say, "We don't know what has
happened in the land." Lo, women are barren, none conceive, Khnum does
not fashion because of the state of the land. <…> Lo, the great hunger
and suffer, <…> Lo, [one eats] herbs, washed down with water, Birds
find neither fruit nor herbs, One takes --- from the mouth of pigs, No face
is bright ... hunger.» (2006LichtheimM:1.151,154–155). Similar apocalyptic themes appear
in other Middle Kingdom texts. In
the «Prophecies of Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty) it is stated: «None speak,
none shed tears: "How fares this land!" The sundisk, covered,
shines not for people to see, One cannot live when clouds conceal, All are
numbs from lack of it. I shall describe what is before me, I do not foretell
what does not come: Dry is the river of Egypt, One crosses the water on foot
; One seeks water for ships to sail on, Its course having turned into shore
land. <…> Its course having turned into shore land. Shoreland will turn
into water, Watercourse back into shoreland. South wind will combat
northwind, Sky will lack the single wind. <…> The grain is low-the
measure is large, It is measured to overflowing. Re will withdraw from
mankind: Though he will rise at his hour. One will not know when noon has
come; No one will discern his shadow, No face will be dazzled by seeing
[him], No eyes will moisten with water. He will be in the sky like the moon,»
(2006LichtheimM:1.141,142–143). Beyond literary
tropes, several historical documents record actual instances of abnormal
weather. In the «Hearst Medical Papyrus», written under Amenhotep I,
incantation № 170 implies a flood in northern Egypt, possibly associated with
a tsunami resulting from the Minoan eruption (1992GoedickeH:60). Furthermore,
the «Tempest Stele» (early 18th Dynasty) records abnormal weather phenomena
likely observed over several years (2014RitnerRK_MoellerN:14). Finally, in
the «Rhind Mathematical Papyrus», compiled under King Apepi (Second
Intermediate Period), an account is given of unusual thunder and rain that
occurred during a specific period (1923PeetTE:129). The «Famine
Stela» testifies that during a period of social distress, Pharaoh Djoser (3rd
Dynasty) ordered immediate sacrifices to be brought to Khnum. That same
night, Khnum appeared to him in a dream. The Pharaoh swore a sacred oath to
the god that his altars would henceforth never be impoverished (2004РакИВ:158). This inscription, apparently made during the
Ptolemaic era, records a period of food shortages. In the «Instruction
Addressed to King Merikare» (Middle Kingdom) speaks of prudent generosity in
times of famine: «They come to you with tribute, with gifts: I have acted
like the forefathers: If one has no grain to give, Be kind, since they are
humble before you. Be sated with your bread, your beer, Granite comes to you
unhindered (2006LichtheimM:1.102). See note!
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1 And when Jacob
saw that there was com in Egypt, Jacob said unto his sons. Why do ye look at
one another ? 2 And he said, Behold, I have heard that there is com in Egypt;
get you down thither, and buy for us provision from there, that we may live,
and not die. 3 And ten brothers of Joseph went down to buy corn in Egypt. 4
But Benjamm, Joseph's brother, Jacob sent not with his brothers ; for he
said, Lest mischief befall him. 5 And the sons of Israel came to buy corn
among those that came; for the famine was in the land of Canaan. … 19 If ye
be true men, let one of your brothers remain imprisoned in the house of your
confinement; but ye, go, carry home what you have bought for the want of your
household. … 33 And the man, the lord of the country, said unto us. Hereby
shall I know that ye are true men: leave one of your brothers here with me,
and (the food for) the want of your households take ye and be gone;
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Climatically Determined Catastrophe A similarity in their perception of
famine as a fundamental threat to societal existence, serving as the primary
trigger for shifts in the territorial and social status of populations during
the early 2nd millennium BCE. |
Mesopotamia In the Akkadian «Epic of Gilgamesh», famine is invoked in an address
to one of the gods: «Instead of your bringing on the Flood, would that famine
had occurred to slay the land!» (1989KovacsMG:103). The standard version of the
«Epic of Gilgamesh» was first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600
BCE) (1989KovacsMG:xxii).
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4 But Benjamm,
Joseph's brother, Jacob sent not with his brothers ; for he said, Lest
mischief befall him. … 36 And Jacob their father said unto them, Me ye have
bereaved of my children : Joseph is gone, and Simeon is gone, and Benjamin ye
will take away; all these things are against me.
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Ethno-Onomastic Authenticity The similarity is manifested in the use of the name «Benjamin»
(Binyamin) as a documented anthroponym and ethnonym within the Near East
during the Middle Bronze Age. |
Mesopotamia As documented in the correspondence from the Mari archives, the
Benjaminite tribes, their kings, and princes, who lived in proximity to the
Bedouins of Canaan. Specifically, the author of a letter (ARM 26/1 282)
reminds Zimri-Lim: «Two Canaanites must be brought alive to the border and
mutilated there. They must go alive to the Benjaminites and tell them that my
Lord has captured the city of Mishlan by force...» (1988CharpinD:582–583, archibab.fr). Furthermore, a certain Ishi-Addu, in a letter (ARM
26/1 121), conveys the words of oracles: «Go to Dur-Yahdun-Lim and verify the
prophecies concerning the inhabitants of Qatna and the Zalmakkum, relating to
the Benjaminites. If, when Zimri-Lim and his troops set out on a campaign... the
Benjaminites will surely form a solid block with their forces and [...] and
besiege Dur-Yahdun-Lim» (1988CharpinD:287–288, archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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5 And the sons of
Israel came to buy corn among those that came; for the famine was in the land
of Canaan.
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Onomastic Authenticity The identified structural
similarity in the use of the theophoric element «El» confirms that the
biblical text belongs to the authentic Near Eastern naming tradition of the
early 2nd millennium BCE. |
Mesopotamia The theophoric
element «El» in personal names is frequently encountered in the documents of
the Mari archives. An example is a letter (ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his
lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). Furthermore, in a letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed
to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Hanaean» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Additionally, Yeskit-El, in a
letter (ARM 26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian
source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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5 And the sons of
Israel came to buy corn among those that came; for the famine was in the land
of Canaan. … 7 And Joseph saw his brothers, and he recognised them; but made
himself strange unto them, and spoke roughly unto them; and he said unto
them, Whence come ye ? And they said. From the land of Canaan to buy food. …
29 And they came unto Jacob their father unto the land of Canaan, and they
told him all that had befallen them; saying, 30 The man, the lord of the
land, spoke roughly to us, and took us as though we were espying the country.
31 And we said unto him. We are true men; we have never been spies : 32 We
are twelve brothers, sons of our father ; the one is no more, and the
youngest is this day with our father in the land of Canaan.
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Ethnopolitical Isomorphism The presence of the term «Canaan»
is characteristic of diplomatic correspondence and legal archives of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants
of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to Askudum (Mari archive, ARM
26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…> awaiting the arrival of the
Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In another letter (ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu
addressed to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned
(1988CharpinD:303–305). The Mari
archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Furthermore, according to Na'aman, «It is thus evident that in
mid–18th century BCE people called "Canaanites" lived south of the
kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria],
i.e., in the same area where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.»
(1994NaʾamanN:398). Notably, «The
earliest occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the Old
Testament is in the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the
middle of the fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). Additionally, «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu, which
is attested by the documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is
supposed to be a Hurrian word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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10 And they said
unto him. No, my lord, thy servants are only come to buy food. … 13 And they
said. We, thy servants, are twelve brothers, sons of one man in the land of
Canaan; and, behold, the youngest is this day with our father, and one is no
more.
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Diplomatic Identity The established structural similarity of rhetorical formulas «your
servant» confirms the use in the Book of Genesis of an authentic protocol of
interstate and social correspondence from the Middle Bronze Age. |
Mesopotamia The standard
opening of vassal correspondence from the Mari archives contains the formula
«your servant». For instance, a
letter from Kibri-Dagan to his lord Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 210) states: «Say to
my Lord: Thus (spoke) Kibri-Dagan, your servant.» (1988CharpinD:439–440). Likewise, a letter from Askudum and
Rishiya to their lord Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 11) reports: «Say to our Lord: Thus speak Askudum and
Rishiya, your servants.» (1988CharpinD:107–109). Similarly, a letter from Shibtu to her lord
Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 214) records:
«Say to my Lord: Thus speaks Shibtu, your servant: In the temple of
Annunitum in the city of Ahatum, the servant of Dagan-Malik prophesied and
said the following…» (1988CharpinD:442–443). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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13 And they said.
We, thy servants, are twelve brothers, sons of one man in the land of Canaan;
and, behold, the youngest is this day with our father, and one is no more. …
32 We are twelve brothers, sons of our father ; the one is no more, and the
youngest is this day with our father in the land of Canaan. |
Numerological Canon The similarity in the use of the
number 12 serves as a tool for organizing chaos, transforming biological
offspring or body fragments into a complete, sacred structure.
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Egypt According to Egyptian legend, «The search for the parts of Osiris’s dismembered body
continued for twelve days» (2004РакИВ:81). In particular, the «Papyrus Jumilhac» (1st century BCE) reports
twelve days of searching for the body parts of Osiris, the duration of the
following is also associated with this number: «the twelve days of the
plowing festival, celebrated throughout the country: these are the days when
the members of the god, found in the cities and nomes, were gathered
together» (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ:60).
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14 And Joseph said unto them, It is as I have spoken unto you, saying,
Ye are spies ; 15 Hereby shall ye be proved: By the life of Pharaoh, ye shall
not go forth hence, except your youngest brother come hither. 16 Send one of
you, and let him fetch your brother, and ye shall be kept in prison, that
your words may be proved, whether the truth be with you; and if not, by the
life of Pharaoh, ye are surely spies. 17 And he put them together into ward
three days. 18 And Joseph said unto them on the third day. This do, and live;
I fear God. 19 If ye be true men, let one of your brothers remain imprisoned
in the house of your confinement; but ye, go, carry home what you have bought
for the want of your household. 20 But your youngest brother bring unto me;
so shall your words be verified, and ye shall not die. And they did so.
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Political Climate
of Suspicion The similarity is
expressed in the description of a shared atmosphere of extreme distrust,
where even kinship ties are subjected to rigorous verification and viewed as
a potential instrument of conspiracy or espionage. |
Egypt Reflecting the political instability of the 12th
Dynasty, the «Instruction of King Amenemhat» contains a somber warning
regarding betrayal and isolation: «Beware of subjects who are nobodies, of
whose plotting one is not aware. Trust not a brother, know not a friend, make
no intimates, for it is worthless. When you lie down, guard your heart
yourself, for no man has adherents on the day of woe» (2006LichtheimM:1.136).
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15 Hereby shall ye be proved: By the life of
Pharaoh, ye shall not go forth hence, except your youngest brother come
hither. 16 Send one of you, and let him fetch your brother, and ye shall be
kept in prison, that your words may be proved, whether the truth be with you;
and if not, by the life of Pharaoh, ye are surely spies.
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The Borrowing the Word
«Pharaoh» |
The term «Pharaoh»
derives from an Egyptian word
that originally designated the palace or the residence of the king and his
administration. By the 12th Dynasty, it became associated with the three
wishes following the royal name (life, prosperity, health), and by the New
Kingdom, the term began to be used as a title for the king himself
(2021NoonanBJ:183).
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18 And Joseph said unto them on the third day. This
do, and live; I fear God. 19 If ye be true men, let one of your brothers
remain imprisoned in the house of your confinement; but ye, go, carry home
what you have bought for the want of your household. 20 But your youngest
brother bring unto me; so shall your words be verified, and ye shall not die.
And they did so.
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Priority of Family Survival The similarity lies in the description of the moral duty of a
high-ranking official to provide food for relatives and to maintain the
viability of their households during periods of socio-economic crisis. |
Egypt On the stela in the tomb of the priest Horemkhauf
(Middle Kingdom – Hyksos Period), it is written: «I, an excellent dignitary
on earth, shall be an excellent spirit (akh) in the necropolis, since I have
given bread to the hungry and clothes to the naked, and have nourished my
brothers. I have not let anyone beg goods from another, and everyone opened
[his heart/hand] to his brothers. I looked after the house of those who had
raised me; they are buried and made to live» (2006LichtheimM:1.130).
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21 And they said
one to another. Truly we are guilty concerning our brother, in that we saw
the anguish of his soul, when he besought us, and we would not hear;
therefore is this distress come upon us. |
Anthropological Dualism There is a similarity in the
reflection of a shared concept of the «soul» as a distinct vital principle.
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Egypt In the Pyramid of
Pepi I (6th Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE), Recitation № 318 states: «Hey, Sun! Now, that which you said, Sun — "Oh
for a son," so you said, Sun, "ba, in control, esteemed, with
active arms (and wide stride" — here is Pepi, Sun. Pepi is your son:
Pepi is ba, Pepi is esteemed, Pepi is in control, Pepi’s arms are active),
this Pepi’s stride is wide.»
(2007AllenJP:123). Recitation № 319 further adds: «Ho, Pepi! You shall become ba as the bas of
Heliopolis, you shall become ba as the bas of Nekhen, you shall become ba as
the bas of Pe, you shall become ba as the living star at the fore of his
brothers.» (2007AllenJP:124). The
following is an important concept: «Ba = «divine power», «soul»
(2006LichtheimM:1.245). In the «Coffin Texts» (2134–2040 BCE), Spell № 77 reads: «I am this soul of Shu which is in the flame of the
fiery blast which Atum kindled with his own hand.» (1973FaulknerRO:80). We also read in the «Coffin Texts», Spell № 96: «I have crossed
the west of the sky, I have traversed the east of the sky, it is Re who made
my soul for me, and it is I who made a soul for Re.» (1973FaulknerRO:95). In the «Dispute
between a Man and His Ba» (12th
Dynasty), a similar concept is employed in the phrase: «My ba shall
not go, It shall attend to me in this!» (2006LichtheimM:1.164). In the «Three
Tales of Wonder» (Papyrus Westcar, Hyksos period), we read: «May your ba know
the way that leads to the portal that conceals the dead. Thus greetings to a
prince!» (2006LichtheimM:1.218). In
the «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «My ba was
gone, my limbs trembled; my heart was not in my body, I did not know life
from death.» (2006LichtheimM:1.231).
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23 And they knew
not that Joseph understood them; for he spoke unto them by an interpreter. |
Institutionalization of Linguistic Mediation The similarity lies in the mention of the official position of the
«interpreter» as a necessary element of the state apparatus for conducting
diplomatic and legal contacts with foreigners. |
Egypt The word
«interpreter» is encountered in texts from the Old and Middle Kingdoms
(1915GardinerA). In the tomb of a contemporary of King Pepi II (6th Dynasty,
ca. 2246–2152 BCE), the following words are inscribed: «He earned the praise
of his lord by pleasing him—the treasurer of the King of Lower Egypt, the
lector-priest, Harkhuf, the chief of interpreters, revered by Ptah-Sokar»
(1978КоростовцевМА:86). During the
time of Pharaoh Merneptah (19th Dynasty), a high priest named Ankhurmes is
attested in Thinis, who states in his autobiography that he became «an
interpreter in every land for my lord» (2001КоростовцевМА:148–149).
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28 And he said
unto his brothers, My money hath been restored; and, lo, it is even in my
sack : and their heart failed them, and they were afraid, saying one to
another, What is this that God hath done unto us?
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Psychological Parallel A direct parallel between the «heart» and the inner «self», endowing
this organ with the functions of rational thinking, moral judgment, and the
source of the individual's volitional decisions.
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Egypt The heart as an
organ of thought, will, and ethical choice is repeatedly mentioned in ancient
Egyptian texts. In the Pyramid of Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE), Recitation
№ 404, it is stated: «You
shall take (them) for him to every place in which his heart might wish to be.»
(2007AllenJP:274). Recitation № 319 of the same pyramid states: «His son shall provide this
Pepi Neferkare with life; he shall make it happy for his heart, he shall make
it pleasant for his heart; he shall establish for him the Nile Valley, he
shall establish for him the Delta;» (2007AllenJP:265). The Pyramid of Unis (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353–2323 BCE), Recitation
№ 180, describes the king as:
«Unis
is the sky’s bull, with terrorizing in his heart, who lives on the evolution
of every god, who eats their bowels when they have come from the Isle of
flame with their belly filled with magic.» (2007AllenJP:51). The «Pyramid Texts»
(2350–2175 BCE), in Utterance № 650 (1836a-b), state: «He equips N. with life; he makes his heart
rejoice; he makes his heart sweet.» (1952MercerSAB:450). In the «Coffin Texts» (2134–2040
BCE), Spell № 64 reads: «…see, I bring it to you that your heart may be made
glad by means of it; I bring to you the Eye of Horus, that your heart may be
made glad by means of it.» (1973FaulknerRO:60). Spell № 148 adds: «The
lightning flash strikes, the gods are afraid, Isis wakes pregnant with the
seed of her brother Osiris. She is uplifted, (even she) the widow, and her
heart is glad with the seed of her brother Osiris. She says: 'O you gods, I
am Isis, the sister of Osiris, who wept for the father of the gods, (even) Osiris
who judged the slaughterings of the Two Lands.» (1973FaulknerRO:125). Similar sentiments appear in didactic works, such as the «Instruction
Addressed to Kagemni» (6th Dynasty): «When you drink with a drunkard, Take
when his heart is content. Don't fall upon meat by the side of a glutton,
Take when he gives you, don't refuse it, Then it will soothe.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.60). The «Instruction of Ptahhotep» (6th Dynasty) contains several such references:
«He whose heart obeys his belly Puts contempt of himself in place of love,
His heart is bald, his body unanointed; The great-hearted is god-given, He
who obeys his belly belongs to the enemy.» (2006LichtheimM:1.67); «A man in
distress wants to pour out his heart More than that his case be won»
(2006LichtheimM:1.68); «Dispute with him after a time, Test his heart in
conversation; If what he has seen escapes him, If he does a thing that annoys
you, Be yet friendly with him, don't attack;» (2006LichtheimM:1.72). In the
«Complaints of Khakheperre-sonb» (Middle
Kingdom), the narrator says: «He said to his heart: Come, my heart, I
speak to you, Answer me my sayings!» (2006LichtheimM:1.147–148). The «Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor»
(Middle Kingdom) notes: «Each of them-his heart was stouter, his arm
stronger than his mate's.» (2006LichtheimM:1.213). The «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom),
states: «Then his heart was happy beyond everything, and they sat down
to a day of feasting.» (2006LichtheimM:1.221). Furthermore, the «Stela of Sehetep-ib-re» (12th Dynasty),
written for an official who served successively under Sesostris III and
Amenemhet III, commands: «Cleave to His Majesty in your hearts! He is
Sia in the hearts, His eyes seek out everybody.» (2006LichtheimM:1.128). The «Satire of the
Trades» (Middle
Kingdom) advises: «I have seen many beatings -
Set your heart on books!» (2006LichtheimM:1.185). Finally, the «Song from the Tomb of King Intet» (Middle Kingdom) exhorts: «To tell of their needs, To
calm our hearts, Until we go where they have gone! Hence rejoice in your
heart! Forgetfulness profits you, Follow your heart as long as you live!» (2006LichtheimM:1.196).
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28 And he said
unto his brothers, My money hath been restored; and, lo, it is even in my
sack : and their heart failed them, and they were afraid, saying one to
another, What is this that God hath done unto us?
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Psychological Parallel (The Heart as the Seat of Intellect) A direct parallel between the «heart» and the inner «self», endowing
this organ with the functions of rational thinking, moral judgment, and the
source of the individual’s volitional decisions.
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Mesopotamia In the Sumerian
poem «Myth of
Enki and Ninmah», we read: Enki says to his mother, Nammu, the primeval sea: «O my
mother, the creature whose name you uttered, it exists, Bind upon it the
image (?) of the gods; Mix the heart of the clay that is over the abyss, The
good and princely fashioners will thicken the clay, You, do you bring the
limbs into existence;» (1981KramerS:106–107). The tablet with the «Myth of Enki and
Ninmah» is dated to the Old Babylonian period (1969BenitoCA:1).
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Working
Hypothesis: The Famine Under Joseph and the Minoan Eruption
There
is a scholarly opinion that the mention in the «Hearst Medical Papyrus» of a flood in
northern Egypt is linked to a tsunami generated by the eruption of the
Santorini volcano (1992GoedickeH). Indeed, paragraph 170 of the manuscript
refers to «extracting» the «disease of the Asiatics» from a patient and sealing
it, just as «Seth called upon the sea» (sae.saw-leipzig.de). This document has a logical connection to
the «Rhind Mathematical Papyrus» through the same divine name and a similar
extraordinary event. According to the Bayesian model, the Santorini eruption
must have occurred at the end of the 17th century BCE, coinciding with the
world of the late Middle Bronze Age Levant and the Second Intermediate Period
(1650/1640–1540/1530 BCE), when Northern Egypt was controlled by a Canaanite
dynasty (2006ManningSW_WildEM). Through the dating of an olive branch buried
during the Minoan eruption, it was determined that it occurred at the end of
the 17th century BCE with 95% confidence between 1627–1600 BCE, and with 68%
probability between 1621–1605 BCE (2006FriedrichWL_TalamoS). A recent
reassessment of Mediterranean fossil plant material showed that the volcano was
active with 65.8–74.5% confidence in 1619–1596 BCE (2020ManningSW_TegelW). Volcanological
Consensus: The «Global Volcanism Program» estimates that Santorini became
active in 1610±14 BCE (volcano.si.edu).
According to data from the «GISP2»
project, which examines the composition of fossil ice in Greenland, the most
significant sulfate signal of the Bronze Age — indicating major volcanic
activity — is dated to 1695 BCE (1997ClausenHB_LegrandM).However, the dating of
chemical compounds in Greenland ice cores requires specific adjustments: A
correction of approximately 80 years is necessary for dates around 3,600 years
ago (calculated from 1950).A correction of about 60 years is required for ages
exceeding 3,400 years. Unfortunately, radiocarbon dating (14C)
cannot be precisely calibrated solely based on information extracted from
Greenland ice (1998StuiverM_SpurkM; 2004SouthonJ). Based on these adjustments,
we conclude that an anomalous amount of sulfate precipitated fall in Greenland
approximately in 1615 BCE. Our calculation: 1695 - 80 = 1615 BCE. Following
this timeline, we suggest that the food shortage in the Eastern Mediterranean
described in the Book of Genesis occurred shortly thereafter, approximately in
1614 BCE.
The main eruption of Santorini was
preceded by a series of explosions with the emission of more than a million
cubic meters of ash to the south several days or weeks before the onset of the
primary events. This was followed by an energetically saturated discharge of
volcanic ash and gases, carried eastward by stratospheric winds. Within a few
hours, powerful phreatomagmatic (steam) explosions occurred. After an uncertain
interval, the resulting massive tuff cone collapsed within a matter of hours or
days. In the final stage, the sea breached the tuff barrier of the crater and
flooded the caldera. During this eruption—the largest in the last 10000
years—between 48 and 86 km³ of magma and lithic fragments were ejected
(2019DruittTH_VougioukalakisGE).
Based on the preserved insect
remains from the island during that period, it has been established that
Santorini «awakened» in the summer after the harvest, specifically in June or
early July (2013PanagiotakopuluE_DoumasC). Thus, the initial ash emissions that
preserved the insects occurred during this period. The main eruption of
volcanic material took place several weeks later, likely in August–early
September 1615 BCE. The loud noise associated with these explosions could have
been heard in Egypt during the reigns of Pharaohs Ahmose and Apepi I
(1923PeetTE; 2014RitnerRK_MoellerN). Apparently, the tsunami resulting from the
Minoan eruption is reflected in the «Hearst Medical Papyrus» (1992GoedickeH).
The fallout of ash from the Minoan eruption in the eastern Nile Delta,
presumably during the 18th Dynasty (1550–1307 BCE), has been proven by field
research (1986StanleyDJ_ShengH; 2002BunsonMR).
At the end of August 1883 CE, a
comparable but slightly less powerful eruption of the Krakatoa volcano
occurred, which was assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) of «6». At that
time, «only» about 18 km³ of material was ejected from the crater (2003BeyA).
Throughout 1884 and 1885, anomalous cooling was recorded practically worldwide
(2009SchallerN_OnnimannS). Specifically, during these years in the south of the
Iberian Peninsula, the duration of daily sunshine was notably lower than
average climatological values, which is attributed to sulfate aerosol particles
in the atmosphere and an increase in cloud cover (2020ObregónMA_VaqueroJM). In
June 1991 CE, the largest recent VEI–6 eruption took place at Mount Pinatubo
(Philippines). It expelled 8.4–10.4 km³ of material, forming a significant
volcanic cloud (2004GuoS_WatsonIM). Aerosol particles remained suspended in the
atmosphere for several years, causing a maximum cooling—averaged across four
continents—of approximately 0.5°C in September–November of 1992 and 1993
(2002YangF_SchlesingerME).
The synthesis of paleoclimatological
data and ancient Egyptian literature suggests that the «seven years of famine»
may be a literary framing of a real, multi-phase ecological catastrophe. Modern
analogues, such as the eruptions of Krakatoa (1883) and Mount Pinatubo (1991),
demonstrate that even less powerful events (VEI–6) can cause global cooling of
approximately 0.5°C and a significant reduction in daily sunshine due to
sulfate aerosols and increased cloud cover (2002YangF_SchlesingerME; 2020ObregónMA_VaqueroJM).
Given that the Minoan eruption was exponentially larger (ejecting up to 86 km³
of material), the resulting «volcanic winter» would have been devastating for
agriculture, particularly in Northern Africa and the Middle East.
The «Prophecies of Neferti» provide
a chillingly accurate description of these physical phenomena: «The sundisk,
covered, shines not for people to see... Re will withdraw from mankind... He
will be in the sky like the moon» (2006LichtheimM). This «dimming» of the sun,
coupled with the observation that «South wind will combat northwind», indicates
a decrease in solar insolation and a large-scale disruption of atmospheric
circulation, which would inevitably lead to a decrease in the water level
during the Nile floods.
While the Book of Genesis specifies
a period of seven years, it is important to note that this number may serve a
symbolic or mnemonic function in didactic literature. In reality, volcanic ash
and stratospheric aerosols circulate for varying durations — sometimes for only
two or three years of acute cooling, depending on the eruption's magnitude and
sulfur content. Furthermore, while the Minoan event is a primary candidate for
the Joseph narrative's backdrop, the descriptions in the «Prophecies of
Neferti» (12th Dynasty) suggest that Egyptians had already encountered and
recorded similar volcanic-induced crises earlier in the Middle Kingdom.
Thus, the Joseph story likely draws upon a well-established Egyptian «memory» of how such global catastrophes manifest: beginning with toxic ash, acid rain, deteriorating air quality, global cooling, and drought, through decreased sunlight due to «darkened» skies, to the long-term collapse of hydrological and agricultural systems, diseases affecting humans and domestic animals, and ultimately leading to large-scale social upheaval. We believe that the authors of the Book of Genesis were aware of the Minoan catastrophe, its long-term global consequences, and the specific two-phase nature of the resulting food shortage. This knowledge was masterfully repurposed artistically and made the central axis of the story of Joseph in Egypt.
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 42
Climatic
Anomalies (Environmental History):
The
description of the famine, which compels Joseph's brothers to descend into
Egypt, coincides with Egyptian accounts of a «hidden sun» and the «drying of
the river» in the Prophecies of Neferti (12th Dynasty). These details,
alongside the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (reign of the Hyksos King Apepi) and
the Tempest Stele, form a picture of a global climatic shift. In the context of
this study, this correlates with the aftermath of the Santorini eruption (c.
1614 BCE), which triggered multi-year anomalies (darkness, cold, and the
disruption of Nile inundations). The Admonitions of Ipuwer (12th Dynasty)
records in detail the social consequences of such a deficit: hunger,
infertility, and physical exhaustion («eating herbs washed down with water»).
This establishes a historical basis for understanding the «want of the
households» mentioned in Genesis 42 as a critical state threatening the very
survival of the ethnic group.
Trans-regional
Context (Geography):
The
invocation of famine as a preferred alternative to the Flood in the Epic of
Gilgamesh (c. 1800–1600 BCE) confirms that during the Old Babylonian period,
famine was perceived as a fundamental threat to the entire region. This
explains the scale of population displacement from Canaan to Egypt as the only
viable survival strategy.
Terminology
(Geography & History):
The use of
the toponym «Canaan» by Joseph's brothers (vv. 5, 7, 13) is not an anachronism.
Data from the Mari archives (18th century BCE) and the statue of Idrimi from
Alalakh (15th century BCE) confirm that the term «Canaan» and the ethnonym «Canaanites»
were already firmly established in the diplomatic and legal correspondence of
the Near East during the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. This directly
indicates that the text of Genesis operates within the authentic geographic
nomenclature of the Middle Bronze Age.
Epistolary
Protocol (Diplomatic Identity):
The
self-identification of the brothers before Joseph through the formula «your
servants» (Heb. ‘ăḇāḏeḵā, vv. 10, 11) precisely reproduces the vassal etiquette
of that period. Identical formulas («Say to my lord: Thus speaks your servant»)
are standard openings for letters in the Mari archives (c. 1800–1600 BCE). The
presence of this formula in Genesis demonstrates the author's knowledge of the
strict rules of formal address employed in the diplomacy of the Old Babylonian
and Hyksos periods. The synchronicity of the term «Canaan» and the formula «your
servant» in archival documents of the 18th–16th centuries BCE and the text of
Genesis allows for the dating of the described events to the period of most
intensive contact between Egypt and Mesopotamia—the Second Intermediate Period.
Numerological
Canon (Structure & Symbolism):
The number «twelve»
in Genesis (v. 13: «Thy servants are twelve brethren») serves not merely as a
quantitative measure but as a tool for the sacral structuring of a lineage.
This finds a direct parallel in the Egyptian myth of Osiris, where twelve days
of searching for the god's body parts symbolize the restoration of integrity
out of chaos. The tradition of the «twelve days of the plowing festival,»
documented in historical sources, underscores that the number twelve was
perceived in the region as a symbol of completeness and the re-establishment of
order, lending the account of the twelve brothers the status of a legitimate «sacral
unit» in an Egyptian context.
Political
Climate of Suspicion (State Security):
Joseph’s
extreme distrust toward his brothers and his readiness to view them as spies («ye
are spies») mirrors the political philosophy of Egypt’s 12th Dynasty. In the
Instruction of King Amenemhat, a principle of total suspicion is explicitly
declared: «trust not a brother, know not a friend.» The description of the
interrogation in Genesis 42 is not merely Joseph's personal grievance but a
demonstration of the behavior of an ideal Egyptian official of that era, for
whom kinship ties represented a high-risk zone for potential conspiracy.
Chronological
and Psychological Isomorphism: The combination of the sacral number twelve and
the specific «instructive» suspicion situates the historical context of the
text within the Middle Kingdom and the Hyksos period (c. 20th–16th centuries
BCE), when these ideas were dominant in Egyptian administrative and religious thought.
Ethno-Onomastic
Authenticity
The name of
Joseph’s youngest brother (Benjamin) finds a direct and unique parallel in the
name of the powerful tribal confederation DUMU.MEŠ-Ya-mi-na (Binu-Yamina),
documented in the Mari archives (18th century BCE). The structural identity of
the name («son of the right hand/south») and its presence within the Semitic
environment of the Middle Bronze Age indicate that this onomastic unit was an
organic and widespread element in the region long before the formation of the
Israelite kingdom. The Mari texts (from the era of Zimri-Lim) describe the
Benjaminites as an active political force operating in close contact with the
Canaanites and the inhabitants of Qatna. This fully aligns with the
geographical and ethnic context of Genesis 42, where the brothers arrive
specifically from Canaan. The mention of Benjaminite «kings and princes» in
official correspondence confirms the high status of this group within the Mesopotamian-Levantine
arena of the 18th–17th centuries BCE. The presence of such a specific
ethnonym/anthroponym as «Benjamin» in documents dating to the first half of the
18th century BCE serves as a compelling argument for the historicity of the
original tradition. The text of the Book of Genesis preserves terminology
characteristic of the Middle Bronze Age, making its late origin without
reliance on an ancient, authentic substratum highly improbable.
Ethics
of Family Survival (Social Responsibility):
Joseph’s
concern that the brothers «carry corn for the famine of your houses» (v. 19)
directly corresponds to the Egyptian ideal of the «excellent spirit» (akh). The
inscription on the stela of the priest Horemkhauf (17th century BCE) proclaims
the same virtues: providing bread to the hungry and looking after the «house of
those who raised me.» This confirms that Joseph's conduct in the Genesis text
is dictated not merely by personal sentiment but by a strict ethical code of a
high-ranking official of the Hyksos era, where saving one's kin from famine was
a prerequisite for legitimacy and posthumous well-being.
Anthropological
Dualism (The Concept of the Soul):
The
description of the brothers' emotional shock and inner turmoil («their heart
failed them,» v. 28) resonates with the Egyptian concept of the Ba (soul) as a
vital force capable of «departing» the body in moments of fear or crisis.
Parallels from the Story of Sinuhe (12th Dynasty: «My ba was gone, my limbs
trembled») and the Dispute between a Man and His Ba emphasize that the author
of Genesis operates with psychological categories identical to those recorded
in Egyptian literature of the 20th–16th centuries BCE. The dualism of the body
and the soul (Ba) as an independent vital principle is a fundamental marker of
Egyptian thought during this period. The utilization of the Ba concept and the
ethical formulas regarding «nourishing brothers,» typical of the Coffin Texts
and the Westcar Papyrus, firmly links the text of Genesis 42 with the cultural
and philosophical environment of the Second Intermediate Period.
Professional
Bureaucracy (Administration):
The text of
Genesis 42 documents the presence of a professional mediator between a
high-ranking official and foreigners. The title «Chief of Interpreters» (imy-r
‘w), attested as early as the tomb of Harkhuf (6th Dynasty), proves that Egypt
maintained a specialized apparatus for managing contacts with foreigners. The
preservation of this detail in the biblical text suggests that the primary
source described an official interrogation procedure, where maintaining
linguistic distance was a mandatory element of bureaucratic etiquette. The
autobiography of Ankhurmes (19th Dynasty) confirms the longevity and high
status of this role («interpreter in every land»). During the Hyksos period
(17th–16th centuries BCE), when Egypt was closely integrated into the
international trade and politics of the Near East, the presence of an
interpreter at the court in Avaris was a technical necessity. This explains why
Joseph, though fluent in his brothers' native tongue, was required to
communicate through an official to maintain his standing as an Egyptian
dignitary. The presence of the «interpreter» (mēlîṣ) in the text underscores
that the author understood the distinction between mundane communication and a
formal state act, a characteristic of documents produced within the
professional scribal environment of the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
General
Conclusion
The
comprehensive interdisciplinary analysis of Genesis Chapter 42 confirms that
the text is not merely a family drama, but a precise record of Egyptian
administrative and geopolitical protocols characteristic of the Bronze Age
crisis period.
Border
Protocol and Security: The accusation of espionage (meraggĕlîm / Eg. śmty) and
the suspicion regarding the «nakedness of the land» (vulnerable borders)
accurately reflect the strategic paranoia of Egypt during the Hyksos Era
(17th–16th centuries BCE). Amidst a «food collapse,» control over the
northeastern frontier in the Nile Delta was a matter of state survival.
Bureaucratic
Precision: The presence of an official interpreter (mēlîṣ) and the use of the
formal legal oath «by the life of Pharaoh» (ḥê p̄ar‘ōh) serve as «terminological
fossils.» These details demonstrate that the author had access to actual
Egyptian interrogation protocols for foreigners, which maintained a strict
distance between the high official and the petitioners.
Ethical
Synchronicity: Joseph’s ethical commitment to saving his brothers and their
households from famine finds a direct papyrological parallel in the Stela of
Horemkhauf (17th century BCE). This confirms that the text operates within the
specific value system of the Egyptian administrative elite of the Second
Intermediate Period.
Numerological
Legitimacy: The utilization of a structure comprising twelve brothers as a
sacral unit for the restoration of order correlates with the Egyptian
mythological cycle (the twelve days of searching for Osiris), lending the
narrative additional cultural authenticity.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the totality of identified linguistic borrowings, administrative protocols, and
climatic markers, the events of Genesis Chapter 42 must be dated to the
mid-17th century BCE (c. 1614–1610 BCE).
Justification:
The chapter describes the second phase of the regional crisis following the
Santorini eruption. The political atmosphere of a «besieged fortress» and
specific bureaucratic procedures (interpreters, oaths, hostage-taking) point
directly to the Hyksos Administration, a time when Egypt was compelled to
strictly regulate the influx of Semitic groups from Canaan.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 20, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 42. About round ligament of femur. March 20, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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