English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 35
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 35 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 35 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 35 Analysis
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Excerpt from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:43-45)
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Type of
similarity and justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels, Analogies, Convergences,
Borrowings, and Inversions in Archaeology, Culture, Medical Knowledge, and
Historical Facts: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Anatolia, and the Nile Valley)
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1 And God said unto Jacob, Arise, go up to Beth-el, and dwell there;
and make there an altar unto the God that appeared unto thee when thou
fleddest from the face of Esau thy brother. … 9 And God appeared unto Jacob
again, when he came from Padan-aram, and blessed him. 10 And God said unto
him. Thy name is Jacob; thy name shall not be called any more Jacob, but
Israel shall be thy name : and he called his name Israel. 11 And God said
unto him, I am God the Almighty; be fruitful and multiply; a nation and an
assemblage of nations shall spring from thee, and kings shall come out of thy
loins. 12 And the land which I gave to Abraham and to Isaac, to thee will I
give it; and to thy seed after thee will I give the land. 13 And God went up
from him on the place where he had spoken with him. 14 And Jacob set up a
pillar at the place where he had spoken with him, a pillar of stone ; and he
poured a drink offering thereon, and he poured oil thereon. 15 And Jacob
called the name of the place where God had spoken with him, Beth-el.
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Theophanic Oneiromancy. The motif of discerning
direct divine instruction immediately upon awakening; the dream is regarded
as a legitimate channel of communication from the gods for determining
further courses of action.
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Mesopotamia In the Akkadian «Epic of
Gilgamesh», the hero sees a dream and attempts
to comprehend it: «The Young Men dozed off, sleeping on the couches of the night.
Enkidu was sleeping, and had a dream. He woke up and revealed his dream to
his friend.» (1989KovacsMG:56). The standard version of the «Epic of
Gilgamesh», first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800-1600 BCE)
(1989KovacsMG:xxii). The earliest evidence of the
practice of collecting dreams in Mesopotamia dates back to the Old Babylonian
period, specifically between 2003 and 1595 BCE (2006NoegelSB).
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1 And God said unto Jacob, Arise, go up to Beth-el, and dwell there;
and make there an altar unto the God that appeared unto thee when thou
fleddest from the face of Esau thy brother. … 9 And God appeared unto Jacob
again, when he came from Padan-aram, and blessed him. 10 And God said unto
him. Thy name is Jacob; thy name shall not be called any more Jacob, but
Israel shall be thy name : and he called his name Israel. 11 And God said
unto him, I am God the Almighty; be fruitful and multiply; a nation and an
assemblage of nations shall spring from thee, and kings shall come out of thy
loins. 12 And the land which I gave to Abraham and to Isaac, to thee will I
give it; and to thy seed after thee will I give the land. 13 And God went up
from him on the place where he had spoken with him. 14 And Jacob set up a
pillar at the place where he had spoken with him, a pillar of stone ; and he
poured a drink offering thereon, and he poured oil thereon. 15 And Jacob
called the name of the place where God had spoken with him, Beth-el.
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Theophanic Oneiromancy. The motif of discerning
direct divine instruction immediately upon awakening; the dream is regarded
as a legitimate channel of communication from the gods for determining
further courses of action.
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Egypt As the Egyptians believed, «The gods
also communicated their will to people in dreams» (2021МюллерМ:208). The «Famine Stela» testifies that during a period of social distress,
Pharaoh Djoser [3rd Dynasty] ordered immediate sacrifices to be brought to
Khnum. (2004РакИВ:158). This
inscription, apparently made during the Ptolemaic era, records the Egyptians'
attentive attitude toward dreams. In «The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant» (Middle Kingdom) there are the
words: «It is the sleeper who sees the dream;» (2006LichtheimM:1.178). In the «Prophecies of
Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th
Dynasty) contain an indication of a
prophetic dream: «Risen as god, hear what I tell you, That you may rule the land,
govern the shores, Increase well-being!» (2006LichtheimM:1.136). In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom) recounts a vision: «Lo, this flight which the servant made-I did not
plan it. It was not in my heart; I did not devise it. I do not know what
removed me from my place. It was like a dream. As if a Delta-man saw himself
in Yebu, a marsh-man in Nubia.» (2006LichtheimM:1.230-231). In «The Instruction Addressed to King Merikare» (Middle Kingdom) speaks of a god who devised magic and
rituals: «He made for them rulers in the egg, Leaders to raise the
back of the weak. He made for them magic as weapons To ward off the blow of
events, Guarding them by day and by night.» (2006LichtheimM:1.106). In Egypt, since the 12th Dynasty, the staff of the «Houses of Life»
(Pr-ʿnḫ), where magic, medicine, and divination were studied, were engaged in
compiling manuals that systematically recorded correspondences between dreams
and the events they foretold (1951GarnotJSF). The Egyptians had specialists
in dream interpretation, and Diodorus reported that above the library of the
Ramesseum there was an inscription: «The Place of Healing for the Soul»
(1972El-AssalG). The «Papyrus Chester Beatty III»
(BM 10683) contains the so-called «Dream Book», possibly dating back to the
12th Dynasty, which provides interpretations of dreams (1935GardinerAH:9).
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2 Then said Jacob unto his household, and to all that were with him,
Put away the strange gods that are among you, and cleanse yourselves, and
change your garments. |
Ethics and Hygiene. A congruent perception of «purity» not merely as the absence of
physical contamination, but as a state of juridical and spiritual integrity
requisite for contact with the sacred.
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Egypt Pyramid of Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE) Recitation № 564:
«You will become clean in the Jackal Lake and be purged (of impurity) in the
Duat Lake.» (2007AllenJP:298). Plutarch (1st–2nd century), recounting the story of Isis and Osiris,
mentions the purification rites of Egyptian priests and their special
attitude toward clothing. In their vestments, they likened themselves to
Osiris, whose raiment «admits of no shadow or variegation, but is one simple
likeness of light; for the beginning is pure, and the primary and
intelligible is unmixed. Therefore, having once put on this garment, the
priests then remove it and keep it invisible and untouched» (1996Плутарх:4,5,77). According to Herodotus (5th century BCE), priests in Egypt were
meticulous about cleanliness: «Every three days the priests shave the hair on
their bodies... Twice a day and twice a night they perform ablutions in cold
water and, in short, observe a multitude of other rites.» Furthermore, all
Egyptians wash their dishes and «wear linen garments, always freshly
laundered» (1972Геродот:2.37). «All priests were obliged to meticulously maintain cleanliness,
especially during sacrifices. <…> Ceremonial purity, however, was
mandatory in all periods and was considered no less important than moral
holiness. Even a layman could not enter the temples without having carefully
purified himself» (2021МюллерМ:203-204). The action resembles the Ancient Egyptian purification ritual from the
«Turin Papyrus CGT 54050», composed during the 19th Dynasty, i.e., in 1307–1196
BCE (2002BunsonMR; sae.saw-leipzig.de). In «The Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we find: « Remember the
erecting of flagstaffs, the carving of offering stones; the priest cleansing
the chapels, the temple whitewashed like milk; sweetening the fragrance of
the sanctuary, setting up the bread- offerings. Remember the observing of
rules, the adjusting of dates, removing one who enters the priestly service
unclean; for to do this is wrong, ... Remember the slaughtering of oxen»
(2006LichtheimM:1.159).
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2 Then said Jacob unto his household, and to all that were with him,
Put away the strange gods that are among you, and cleanse yourselves, and
change your garments. 3 And let us arise, and go up to Beth-el; and I will
make there an altar unto the God who answered me on the day of my distress,
and was with me on the way which I went. 4 And they gave unto Jacob all the
strange gods which were in their hand, and the earrings which were in their
ears; and Jacob hid them under the oak which was near Shechem.
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Ritual Magical Practice. Divine figurines and
talismans (earrings) reflect a common tradition of utilizing protective
amulets, which served as essential instruments for healing and the
preservation of life and health.
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Egypt The Egyptians believed that a signet ring with a scarab image, figures
of Bes, and a statue of the god Shed would «protect well against poisonous
bites» (2004РакИВ:138,259). Bes is
a protector deity in the form of a shaggy dwarf: «From the XII Dynasty, the
cult of Bes spread throughout Egypt» (2004РакИВ:259). The Ramesseum papyrus tomb (Middle Kingdom), belonging to an unknown
erudite individual—possibly a priest, magician, or physician—contained
various figurines associated with magic, one of which was a lion-headed woman
(2020MiniaciG:54). This was likely a model of the goddess Sekhmet (Sokhmet).
She was traditionally depicted as a woman with a lion's head (1940МатьеМВ:69). Specifically, in the Ptolemaic-period
«Papyrus Salt 825», there is a drawing of «a seated Sekhmet in the form of a
fire-breathing lion» (1917ТураевБВ:13). |
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2 Then said Jacob unto his household, and to all that were with him,
Put away the strange gods that are among you, and cleanse yourselves, and
change your garments. 3 And let us arise, and go up to Beth-el; and I will
make there an altar unto the God who answered me on the day of my distress,
and was with me on the way which I went. 4 And they gave unto Jacob all the
strange gods which were in their hand, and the earrings which were in their
ears; and Jacob hid them under the oak which was near Shechem. |
Unity of Sacred Paradigms and Protective Magic. A commonality of traditions regarding the mandatory possession of
personal amulets and deity figurines, which were considered essential
guarantors of maternal health and protectors of the heir's rights. |
Mesopotamia On the cuneiform tablet Gadd 51 (before 1700 BCE) from Kirkuk, an
adoption agreement is recorded for Wullu by a man who has only a daughter,
Nuhuiya: «So long as Naswa is alive, Wullu will give him food and clothing,
and when Naswa is dead, Wullu will give him burial. If there be a son of
Naswa, he sha l divide (the estate) equally with Wullu, and the gods of Naswa
the ; son of Naswa shall take. But if there be no son of Naswa then Wullu
shall take also the gods of Naswa. Also he has given his daughter Nuhuia to
Wullu to wife;» (1926GaddCJ:127). In addition to the find of tablet Gadd 51 (1926GaddCJ) «further Nuzi
texts mentioning household gods have become available. Eleven separate
references are now known, and in nine of them, the gods were given as part of
an inheritance. In each of these nine texts, heirs also participated in the
division who did not receive the gods, which were normally granted to the
eldest son, so that possession of such gods clearly did not represent an
automatic claim to an inheritance.» 1976SelmanMJ:124). Cuneiform tablets from
Nuzi date back to the mid-second millennium BCE (1976SelmanMJ:114). See Note.
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4 And they gave unto Jacob all the strange gods which were in their
hand, and the earrings which were in their ears; and Jacob hid them under the
oak which was near Shechem. |
Toponymic verification. The mention of the
specific settlement of Shechem within the territory of the Levant. |
Levant Shechem (Nablus) is
today the major administrative center. Settlement of the area occurred
between 4500–3200 BCE; signs of urbanization are observed in 1900–1750 BCE,
and by 1650–1550 BCE, it was already a prosperous city (1992FreedmanDN).
Archaeological research has shown that in 1650–1550 BCE, its structures were
destroyed three times, with an interruption of human activity until 1450 BCE
(1974DeverWG).
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5 And they journeyed; and the terror of God was upon the cities that
were round about them, and they did not pursue after the sons of Jacob. |
Metaphysics of Theocratic Terror. Similarity in the application of the concept of «Divine Terror» as a
metaphysical force that paralyzes adversaries and ensures the security of the
chosen individual or group. |
Egypt In Utterance № 422 (755b-c) of the «Pyramid Texts», dated to 2350–2175
BCE, there are similar words: «The spirits come to thee, bowing down; they
kiss the earth at thy feet, because the terror of thee, N., is in the cities
of Śiȝ.»(1952MercerSAB:225). Utterance № 221 (196b-197a): «O Great-in-magic (Crown of Lower Egypt),
O Nsr.t (Uraeus), make thou the terror of N. to be like the terror of thee;»
(1952MercerSAB:102). Utterance № 688 (2082c-d). «(Thus) N. is removed from the horror of
mankind;2082d. the arms of N. are not a horror to the gods.»
(1952MercerSAB:500). Coffin
Texts
(2134-2040 BCE) Spell 105: «Lord of Terror, greatly majestic, Lord of All,
who brings everything.» (1973FaulknerRO:102); Spell № 336 «O Lord of Terror
who is at the head of the Two Lands and is over the waters;»
(1973FaulknerRO:270).
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8 And Deborah Rebekah's nurse died, and she was buried beneath Beth;el
under an oak : and he called its name Allon-bachuth. |
Institutional breastfeeding. Mention of the professional class
of wet nurses, who enjoyed high social status and accompanied their charges
at key moments in life.
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Egypt «Pyramid Texts» (2350-2175 BCE) Utterance № 259 (313b) mentions: «The
two nurses (or, attendants), who wept for Osiris, wept for him.»
(1952MercerSAB:128). «Pyramid Texts» Utterance № 555 (1375a) «The mother of N. is Isis; his
nurse is Nephthys;» (1952MercerSAB:354).
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8 And Deborah Rebekah's nurse died, and she was buried beneath Beth;el
under an oak : and he called its name Allon-bachuth. |
Institutional breastfeeding. Mention of the professional class
of wet nurses, who enjoyed high social status and accompanied their charges
at key moments in life. |
Mesopotamia. In a letter from Usur-awassu to his lord Yasmah-Addu (Royal Archives
of Mari), he mentions the queen's nurse, who arrived with her from Qatna,
having raised the queen since childhood and being familiar with her customs
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:26-27). The
Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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9 And God appeared unto Jacob again, when he came from Padan-aram, and
blessed him. … 26 And the sons of Zilpah, Leah's handmaid. Gad, and Asher:
these are the sons of Jacob, that were born to him in Padan-aram.
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Toponymic verification. Reference to a specific settlement
in Northern Syria that emerged prior to the appearance of the Aramean tribes.
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Mesopotamia Aram appears among the toponyms of Northern Syria nearly 3000 years
before the common era as «A-ra-muki», while the Mesopotamian settlement
«Arame» (A-ra-meki) is recorded in cuneiform inscriptions dating to the 22nd
century before the common era. (2000LipińskiE)
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9 And God appeared unto Jacob again, when he came from Padan-aram, and
blessed him. … 27 And Jacob came unto Isaac his father unto Mamr6, the city
of Arba, which is Hebron, where Abraham and Isaac had sojourned. |
Biographical and
Ethnocultural Isomorphism. A similar narrative motif of
returning from Asia to restore one’s original identity, conceptualized as a
transition from East to West.
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Egypt In Utterance № 578 (1531a-b) of the «Pyramid Texts», dated to
2350-2175 BCE, it is stated: «Osiris N., thou shalt not hasten to those lands
of the East; thou shalt hasten to these lands of the West by the way of the
Followers of Rē‘.» (1952MercerSAB:389). As a result, «Sinuhe flees from
Egypt to Syria, where he spends many years» (1978КоростовцевМА:266) Later, the hero returns from Asia, making a transition from east to
west toward the banks of the Nile. Specifically, in «The Story of Sinuhe»
(Middle Kingdom), [it is] exclaimed to the Pharaoh: «Look, here is Sinuhe! He
has returned looking like an Asiatic, as if he were an Asiatic» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:40). In another translation
of the «Tale of Sinuhe», we read: «And his majesty said to the king’s wife: —
Look, Sinuhe has returned in the guise of an Asiatic, a born Bedouin». (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ:26). The classic
translation of «The Story of Sinuhe» into English: «Then the royal daughters were brought in, and his
majesty said to the queen: "Here is Sinuhe, come as an Asiatic, a
product of nomads!".» (2006LichtheimM:1.232).
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10 And God said unto him. Thy name is Jacob; thy name shall not be
called any more Jacob, but Israel shall be thy name : and he called his name
Israel. … 22 And it came to pass, when Israel dwelt in that land, that Reuben
went and lay with Bilhah his father's concubine; and Israel heard it. Now the
sons of Jacob were twelve. |
Onomastic authenticity. The identified structural similarity in the use of the theophoric
element «El» confirms that the biblical text belongs to the authentic Near
Eastern naming tradition of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia The theophoric element «El» in personal names is frequently
encountered in the documents of the Mari archives. An example is a letter
(ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). In a
letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim, 'Yakhsib-El, the
Hanaean' is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Yeskit-El, in a letter (ARM
26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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16 And they journeyed from Beth-el ; and there was yet some distance
to come to Ephrath, when Rachel travailed, and she had hard labour. 17 And it
came to pass, when she was in hard labour, that the midwife said unto her,
Fear not; for this child also is a son for thee. 18 And it came to pass, as
her soul was departing, (for she died,) that she called his name Ben-oni :
but his father called him Benjamin.
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Obstetric-Protocol
Parallelism. The active involvement of
midwives in complicated deliveries during multifetal pregnancies, including
the verbal assistance of a specialist during childbirth.
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Egypt The «Westcar Papyrus», dating to the Hyksos period, recounts the birth
of triplets involving the god Khnum and a team of midwife goddesses
(2006LichtheimM:1.220). This is mentioned in a tale told to Pharaoh Khufu. In
the narrative, the goddesses Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet, and Heket act as
midwives assisting in the labor. They accelerate the birth, apparently by
applying pressure to the abdomen, speak to the unborn child, bestow a name,
sever the umbilical cord, wash the newborn, and proclaim his future (1978КоростовцевМА:33-35). As is evident from the «Ramesseum IV» papyrus (Middle Kingdom), a
midwife is apparently recommended to recite an incantation over the woman in
labor (sae.saw-leipzig.de). «Shaggy dwarf-monsters known as Bes-gods, and their wives—the goddesses
Besit», were part of the retinue of the goddess Meskhenet, the patroness of
childbirth and assistant to midwives (2004РакИВ:125).
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16 And they journeyed from Beth-el ; and there was yet some distance
to come to Ephrath, when Rachel travailed, and she had hard labour. 17 And it
came to pass, when she was in hard labour, that the midwife said unto her,
Fear not; for this child also is a son for thee. 18 And it came to pass, as
her soul was departing, (for she died,) that she called his name Ben-oni :
but his father called him Benjamin.
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Obstetric-Protocol
Parallelism. The active involvement of
midwives in complicated deliveries during multifetal pregnancies, including
the verbal assistance of a specialist during childbirth.
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Mesopotamia The Atrahasis myth tells: «Let the midwife rejoice in the
house of the woman in confinement, and when the pregnant woman gives birth
let the mother of the babe sever herself.»
(1999LambertWG_CivilM:63). «Myth of Atrahasis», composed ca. 1600 BCE
(1989KovacsMG:xxvi). |
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17 And it came to pass, when she was in hard labour, that the midwife
said unto her, Fear not; for this child also is a son for thee. 18 And it
came to pass, as her soul was departing, (for she died,) that she called his
name Ben-oni : but his father called him Benjamin. |
Clinical-Obstetric
Parallelism. Correspondence in the
clinical knowledge of uterine hemorrhage as a fatal complication of labor
occurring in the presence of a midwife. A case is described where even the
intervention of qualified priest-physicians of Sekhmet often proved futile in
the face of obstetric complications.
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Egypt The lethal outcome is presumably caused by massive uterine hemorrhage.
A discussion regarding the treatment of postpartum uterine hemorrhage is
contained in Case № 17 of the «Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus», written around
1825 BCE (2021LopesHT_PereiraRGG; intechopen.com). See note!
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18 And it came to pass, as her soul was departing, (for she died,)
that she called his name Ben-oni : but his father called him Benjamin. |
Anthropological dualism. There is a similarity in the
reflection of a shared concept of the «soul» as a distinct vital principle
whose preservation constitutes the highest priority.
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Egypt In «The Dispute between a Man and His Ba» (12th Dynasty), a similar concept is employed in the
phrase: «My ba shall not go, It shall attend to me in this!»
(2006LichtheimM:1.164). An important concept: «Ba = «divine power», «soul»
(2006LichtheimM:1.245). Pyramid of Pepi I (6th
Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE) Recitation № 318 «Hey, Sun! Now, that which you said, Sun — “Oh
for a son,” so you said, Sun, “ba, in control, esteemed, with active arms
(and wide stride” — here is Pepi, Sun. Pepi is your son: Pepi is ba, Pepi is
esteemed, Pepi is in control, Pepi’s arms are active), this Pepi’s stride is
wide.»
(2007AllenJP:123). Recitation № 319 «Ho, Pepi! You shall become ba as the bas of
Heliopolis, you shall become ba as the bas of Nekhen, you shall become ba as
the bas of Pe, you shall become ba as the living star at the fore of his
brothers.» (2007AllenJP:124). Coffin Texts (2134-2040 BCE) Spell № 77
«I am this soul of Shu which is in the Hamel of the fiery blast which Atum
kindled with his own hand.» (1973FaulknerRO:80). We also read in the Coffin Texts, Spell
№ 96 «I have crossed the west of the sky, I have traversed the east of the
sky, it is Re who made my soul for me, and it is I who made a soul for Re.» (1973FaulknerRO:95). «Three Tales of Wonder»
(Papyrus Westcar, Hyksos period) we read: «May your ba know the way that
leads to the portal that conceals the dead. Thus greetings to a prince!»
(2006LichtheimM:1.218). In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «My ba was gone,
my limbs trembled; my heart was not in my body, I did not know life from
death.» (2006LichtheimM:1.231).
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22 And it came to pass, when Israel dwelt in that land, that Reuben
went and lay with Bilhah his father's concubine; and Israel heard it. Now the
sons of Jacob were twelve.
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Borrowing of the word «concubine». |
This ancient term likely originates from an Anatolian source
(2021NoonanBJ:176-177). |
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22 And it came to pass, when Israel dwelt in that land, that Reuben
went and lay with Bilhah his father's concubine; and Israel heard it. Now the
sons of Jacob were twelve. |
Legal Assessment. The text highlights
the legal ambiguity regarding adultery between a son and his father’s
concubine within the Near Eastern legislative tradition of the 2nd millennium
BCE. |
Mesopotamia. In the Babylonian «Code of
Hammurabi», written around 1760 BCE, the suspicion of a spouse's adultery is
stipulated: Ǥ 131. If a man accuse his wife and she has not been taken in
lying with another man, she shall take an oath in the name of the god and she
shall return to her house. § 132. If the finger have been pointed at the wife
of a man because of another man, and she have not been taken in lying with
another man, for her husband's sake she shall throw herself into the river.» (1920HandcockPSP:22). According to the «Hittite Laws» (17th–12th centuries BCE): «§ 194/80
If father and a son sleep with the same female slave or prostitute, it is not
an offense.» (1997HoffnerJrHA:153).
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23 The sons of Leah, Jacob's first-born, Reuben, and Simeon, and Levi,
and Judah, and Issachar, and Zebulun. 24 The sons of Rachel, Joseph, and
Benjamin. 25 And the sons of Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid, Dan, and Naphtali. 26
And the sons of Zilpah, Leah's handmaid. Gad, and Asher: these are the sons
of Jacob, that were born to him in Padan-aram.
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Numerological canon. The similarity in the use of the number 12 serves as a tool for
organizing chaos, transforming biological offspring or body fragments into a
complete, sacred structure.
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Egypt According to the legend, «The search
for the parts of Osiris’s dismembered body continued for twelve days» (2004РакИВ:81). In particular, the «Papyrus Jumilhac» (1st century BCE) reports
twelve days of searching for the body parts of Osiris; the duration of the
following is also associated with this number: «the twelve days of the
plowing festival, celebrated throughout the country: these are the days when
the members of the god, found in the cities and nomes, were gathered
together» (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ:60).
|
|
27 And Jacob came unto Isaac his father unto Mamre, the city of Arba,
which is Hebron, where Abraham and Isaac had sojourned. |
Toponymic verification. The correspondence between the biblical text and archaeological data
constitutes a topographical parallel that confirms the actual geographical
coexistence of the mentioned settlement during the specified historical
period.
|
Levant Hebron flourished in the 17th-16th centuries and then was destroyed
and remained deserted throughout the Late Bronze Age. The date of Foundation
is still unclear (2005Na'amanN:180).
|
|
28 And the days of Isaac were one hundred and eighty years. 29 And
Isaac departed this life, and died, and was gathered unto his people, old and
full of days; and Esau and Jacob his sons buried him.
|
Chronological Hyperbolization. The use of anomalously large
numbers serves as a literary device to denote the antiquity of the era and
the sacred status of the described characters in both traditions.
|
Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia, historical figures were attributed legendary
longevity. There existed a list of kings compiled by Sumerian scribes at the
end of the second millennium BCE. For example, the kings of «the first
dynasty after the deluge also reigned for an average of a thousand years, and
subsequently for two hundred years each» (1961ВуллиЛ:15).
|
35:17 And it came to pass, when she was in hard
labour, that the midwife said unto her, Fear not; for this child also is a son
for thee. 18 And it came to pass, as her soul was departing, (for she died,)
that she called his name Ben-oni : but his father called him Benjamin.
We read above:
31:19 And Laban was gone to shear his sheep; and
Rachel, stole the images that were her father's.
35:2 Then said Jacob unto his household, and to all
that were with him, Put away the strange gods that are among you, and cleanse
yourselves, and change your garments.
This legend presumably illustrates the consequence of depriving the woman in labor of her amulets. Given the high mortality rates among children and women, «the Egyptians sought to protect mother and child through incantations and amulets» (2005RedfordDB:193). The Ramesseum papyri tomb (Middle Kingdom), belonging to an unknown erudite individual—possibly a priest, magician, or physician—contained various figurines associated with magic, including one of a lion-headed woman (2020MiniaciG:54). This was likely a model of the goddess Sekhmet (Sakhmet). She was traditionally depicted as a woman with a lion's head (1940МатьеМВ:69). Specifically, the «Salt 825» papyrus of the Ptolemaic period depicts «a seated Sakhmet in the form of a fire-breathing lion» (1917ТураевБВ:13). In addition to the Memphite goddess Sekhmet, the goddess Tefnut was also represented as a lioness (2006LichtheimM:240). In the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), Gloss A of Case № 1 describes the methodology for pulse detection by a priest of Sekhmet or any physician (1930BreastedJH:78; sae.saw-leipzig.de). B. Turaev (1916) discovered a mention of a priest of the goddess Sekhmet named Ranseneb in a 12th Dynasty papyrus (2001КоростовцевМА:120-121).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 35
Chronology
and Dating:
The
analysis of the presented sources identifies a distinct temporal horizon: the
Middle Kingdom of Egypt (12th Dynasty) and the Old Babylonian Period (20th–16th
centuries BCE). It is during this era (c. 2000–1600 BCE) that the first
systematic dream-collection practices are recorded in Mesopotamia (Epic of
Gilgamesh, early dream books), while in Egypt, the institutions of the «Houses
of Life» were established and foundational texts such as Papyrus Chester Beatty
III and the Prophecies of Neferti were composed.
Textual
and Linguistic Similarities:
The motif
in Genesis 35, where Jacob receives direct divine instruction and immediately
proceeds to its implementation upon awakening, finds a direct isomorphism in
Egyptian literature of the Middle Kingdom. The phrase from the Prophecies of
Neferti («Hear what I tell you... That you may rule») and Sinuhe’s experience («It
was like a dream») reflect the same semantic structure: a dream is not merely a
vision, but a legitimate juridical and sacral instrument for directing a
protagonist's actions.
Geography
and Ethnocultural Context:
The
correspondence between the Epic of Gilgamesh (Mesopotamia) and Egyptian
instructions underscores that Genesis 35 operates with concepts common to the
intellectual elite of the Fertile Crescent in the 2nd millennium BCE. The «East-West»
geographical vector mentioned in the Story of Sinuhe resonates with Jacob's
route as he returns from Mesopotamia to Canaan.
Medicine
and Psychology:
The
reference to the Ramesseum as a «Place of Healing for the Soul» and the
activities of priest-magicians emphasize that dreaming was viewed as part of a
therapeutic and prognostic complex. This prepares the ground for the subsequent
conclusion regarding the link between the removal of magical artifacts and the
physiological outcome of childbirth.
Chronology
and Archaeology:
The
presented data confirm that the concepts of ritual purity and the use of
protective amulets in Egypt were definitively codified during the Middle
Kingdom (12th Dynasty). Finds from the «magician's tomb» at the Ramesseum (c.
1700s BCE) and texts such as the Admonitions of Ipuwer demonstrate that by the
early 2nd millennium BCE, a strict protocol had been established: physical
purification and the changing of garments were mandatory juridical
prerequisites for entering into contact with the sacred (the sanctuary). This
completely correlates with Jacob's command to his household in Genesis 35:2: «be
clean, and change your garments.»
Medico-Magical
Context:
The use of
figurines (Bes, Sekhmet) and earrings as amulets in the Egyptian tradition was
directly related to healthcare and childbirth. The emergence of the cult of Bes
during the 12th Dynasty as a protector of women in labor renders Jacob’s
removal of «foreign gods» and earrings (Gen. 35:4) an act that was not only
religious but also one that deprived the family of their customary «medical»
means of protection.
Textual
and Linguistic Similarities:
The
terminology of «purification» in Egyptian sources (from the Pyramid Texts to
Papyrus Turin CGT 54050) aligns with the biblical emphasis on removing «impurity»
before sacrifice. The use of linen and freshly laundered garments (Herodotus,
Plutarch) reflects the same ontology of «light and purity» implied in Jacob’s
actions prior to constructing the altar at Bethel.
Legal
and Ethnocultural Context (Mesopotamia):
The
analysis of Mesopotamian legal documents from Nuzi and Kirkuk (18th–15th
centuries BCE), such as tablet Gadd 51, reveals the critical role of «household
gods» (teraphim) in the structure of inheritance. Possession of these figurines
was not mere superstition; it served as a juridical marker of primogeniture and
the status of the head of the household. Jacob’s removal of these «gods» from
his family in Genesis 35:4 and their burial under the oak is not only a
religious reform but a radical legal act that nullified the family's old
Mesopotamian legal ties in favor of a new covenant. The fact that in the Nuzi
texts (mid-2nd millennium BCE), the transfer of gods was strictly regulated
confirms that the author of Genesis describes the social realities of precisely
this period.
Archaeological
and Toponymic Verification (Levant):
The mention
of Shechem in Chapter 35 (in the context of departing toward Bethel) finds
precise confirmation in archaeological data. The zenith of Shechem as a
fortified urban center occurs between 1900–1550 BCE (Middle Bronze Age). The
triple destruction of the city between 1650–1550 BCE and its subsequent decline
until 1450 BCE indicates that the biblical narrative reflects the political
geography of Canaan prior to the mid-2nd millennium BCE, when Shechem was a key
node on the patriarchal route.
Metaphysics
and Military Psychology (Egypt):
An analysis
of the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts (24th–21st centuries BCE) reveals a
direct conceptual parallel to the «terror of God» in Genesis 35:5. In Egyptian
theology, «terror» (terrible majesty) is an objective force emanating from a
deity or its representative that paralyzes adversaries on a physical level («cities
bowing down»). The use of this motif in Chapter 35 to explain Jacob’s safety
during the transition from Shechem to Bethel demonstrates that the author
operates with the ancient Near Eastern concept of theocratic immunity,
documented in texts of the Old and Middle Kingdoms.
Social
Institutions (Egypt and Mari):
The mention
of the death of Deborah, Rebekah's nurse (Gen. 35:8), reflects the high social
status of wet nurses during the Bronze Age. Parallels from the Mari Archives
(18th century BCE) and the Pyramid Texts show that a nurse was not merely a
servant but a key figure in the hierarchy of a noble household, accompanying
her charges during migrations and inter-state marriages. The fact that the
Bible records her burial site («Oak of Weeping») aligns perfectly with
Mesopotamian and Egyptian evidence regarding the deep emotional and legal bond
between a nurse and the family in the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Toponymy
and Chronology (Northern Syria):
The mention
of «Paddan-Aram» (in the context of Jacob's return in Gen. 35:9, 26) is often
criticized as a 1st-millennium BCE anachronism. However, the presented data
from Mesopotamian cuneiform inscriptions of the 22nd century BCE (A-ra-me) and
earlier Eblaite texts from the 3rd millennium BCE (A-ra-mu) prove the existence
of this toponym long before the emergence of Aramean political entities in the
Iron Age. This confirms that the geographical nomenclature of Genesis 35 relies
on an archaic Bronze Age substratum, authentic to the patriarchal era.
Biographical
Isomorphism (Egypt and Canaan):
The
parallel between the story of Jacob and «The Story of Sinuhe» (12th Dynasty)
reveals a stable literary and cultural archetype of the Middle Bronze Age: the
transition from East to West as an act of identity restoration. The phrase from
the Pyramid Texts («shalt not hasten to those lands of the East... hasten to
these lands of the West») finds a direct reflection in the destiny of Jacob,
who, like Sinuhe, returns from a long emigration in Asia and exchanges the
persona of an «Asiatic nomad» for the status of a legitimate heir to the
covenant in Canaan. The changing of garments and purification at Bethel (Gen.
35:2) are functionally identical to Sinuhe's transformation at the Pharaoh's
court.
Onomastic
Authenticity (Mesopotamia):
The use of
the theophoric element «El» in the names and titles of Genesis 35 (Israel,
Bethel/El-Bethel) finds a direct isomorphism in the Mari Archives (18th century
BCE). Personal names such as Ibal-pi-El, Yakhsib-El, and Yasim-El confirm that
the anthroponymic model of Genesis is not a late reconstruction but corresponds
to the authentic, living tradition of the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE.
This indicates that the text preserves a linguistic stratum authentic to the
patriarchal era, when the root «El» was dominant in West Semitic onomastics.
Obstetric-Protocol
Parallelism (Egypt):
The
description of Rachel’s labor (Gen. 35:17) and the role of the midwife, who
engages in a verbal dialogue with the mother («Fear not; for this child also is
a son for thee»), precisely matches the Egyptian protocols documented in the
Westcar Papyrus (Hyksos period) and Papyrus Ramesseum IV (Middle Kingdom).
Egyptian midwife-goddesses performed the same functions: accelerating delivery,
providing verbal support, and the immediate bestowing of a name/proclamation of
the child's future. The comparison with the cults of Bes and Meskhenet
underscores that the biblical text describes professional obstetric assistance
characteristic of the Middle Bronze Age.
Clinical-Obstetric
Parallelism (Egypt):
The
description of Rachel’s death from hard labor (Gen. 35:16–19) finds an exact
medical correspondence in the Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus (c. 1825 BCE). Case
No. 17 describes uterine hemorrhage as a critical complication against which
the medicine of that era was often powerless. The textual link between the
removal of «foreign gods» (amulets of Sekhmet/Bes) and Rachel's subsequent
death reflects the worldview of the Middle Kingdom, where magical protection
(amulets) and the professional assistance of the priest-physicians of Sekhmet
were viewed as a unified therapeutic complex. Rachel’s death in the presence of
a midwife is not merely a tragedy but a clinically accurate depiction of an
obstetric catastrophe of the 2nd millennium BCE.
Anthropological
Dualism (Egypt):
The phrase
in Genesis 35:18 («And it came to pass, as her soul was departing, for she died»)
has a direct ideological isomorphism in Egyptian texts of the 6th–12th
Dynasties. The concept of «Ba» (soul) as an active vital force that can «depart»
(my ba was gone—Sinuhe) or leave the body is central to the Egyptian
anthropology of the Old and Middle Kingdoms. The description of the moment of
death as the separation of the vital principle («soul») from the body aligns
perfectly with the metaphysics of the Pyramid and Coffin Texts, where the «Ba»
determines the transition from life to death.
Linguistics
and Etymology (Anatolia):
The use of
the term for «concubine» (pilegesh), which modern scholars believe has
Anatolian (Hittite/Luwian) roots, indicates a linguistic contact characteristic
of the 2nd millennium BCE. This supports the theory that the text of Genesis
absorbed terminology from the era of Hittite influence in the region (17th–12th
centuries BCE), marking it as an authentic monument of the Bronze Age.
Legal
Context (Mesopotamia and the Hittite Kingdom):
The
incident involving Reuben and Bilhah (Gen. 35:22) is analyzed through the prism
of the Code of Hammurabi (18th century BCE) and Hittite Laws (17th–12th
centuries BCE). The biblical text reflects the legal ambiguity of that period:
while Hammurabic law punished adultery with death, Hittite law (§ 194/80) did
not consider it a crime if a father and son slept with the same woman of lower
status (slave/concubine). Israel’s silence in Chapter 35 may be interpreted not
as indifference, but as a record of a legal conflict typical of the Middle and
Late Bronze Ages, when the patriarchs existed at the intersection of differing
legal systems.
Numerological
Canon (Egypt):
The listing
of the 12 sons of Jacob in Genesis 35:22–26 is functionally identical to the
Egyptian sacral canon of the number 12. Just as the 12 days spent gathering the
fragments of Osiris's body transformed the chaos of dismemberment into the
wholeness of a deity, the list of 12 sons transforms a family group into a
complete, sacred structure (a nation). The use of this number as a tool for
legitimation and structuring finds direct parallels in the Jumilhac Papyrus and
rituals of the Middle Kingdom.
Archaeological
Verification (Levant):
The mention
of Hebron (Mamre) in Genesis 35:27 as the destination of Jacob’s journey finds
precise confirmation in archaeological data. Hebron’s zenith occurred during
the 17th–16th centuries BCE (Middle Bronze Age), followed by its destruction
and abandonment throughout the Late Bronze Age. The fact that the text
associates Jacob with a functioning Hebron precludes the possibility of this
section being composed during the Late Bronze Age and points to a historical
memory rooted in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE.
Literary
Tradition (Mesopotamia):
The mention
of Isaac’s age as 180 years (Gen. 35:28) aligns with the Near Eastern literary
canon of the late 2nd millennium BCE (e.g., the Sumerian King List). The
hyperbolization of age in both Mesopotamian and Biblical traditions served an
identical function: denoting the sacral status of the patriarch and
legitimizing the lineage's antiquity. The use of this device underscores the
text's belonging to an ancient literary milieu where «large numbers» were
markers of authority and holiness.
General
Conclusion
The
multidisciplinary study of Genesis Chapter 35, conducted through a comparative
analysis of the biblical text and a vast corpus of Ancient Near Eastern data,
has revealed a profound integration of the narrative into the cultural,
historical, legal, and medical environment of the Bronze Age. The text
demonstrates not merely incidental overlaps, but a systematic isomorphism with
the realities of the 2nd millennium BCE across the following key parameters:
Medico-Obstetric
Block: The description of Rachel’s labor (Gen. 35:16–18) exhibits striking
clinical accuracy regarding pathological details (uterine hemorrhage)
documented in Egyptian papyri of the 19th–18th centuries BCE (Kahun, Ramesseum
IV). The causal link between the removal of amulets (Sekhmet/Bes) and the
lethal outcome aligns with the medico-magical paradigm of the Middle Kingdom.
Legal and
Social Block: The practice of possessing «household gods» as a juridical marker
of inheritance rights (Nuzi and Kirkuk archives, 18th–15th centuries BCE), the
status of the wet nurse (Mari archives, 18th century BCE), and the legal
ambiguity of adultery between a son and his father’s concubine (Hittite Laws,
17th–12th centuries BCE) all anchor the social environment to the Patriarchal
age.
Toponymy
and Geography: The mention of flourishing Shechem and Hebron corresponds to
archaeological data regarding Canaanite urbanization specifically during the
Middle Bronze Age (19th–16th centuries BCE). The use of the toponym Aram in its
pre-Aramean sense (22nd century BCE) further confirms the archaism of the
geographical stratum.
Linguistics
and Anthropology: The use of Anatolian borrowings (pilegesh) and the Egyptian
concept of the «soul» (Ba) departing the body at death indicates that the
author was in direct contact with the intellectual elite of the Bronze Age.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the convergence of data (Egyptian obstetric protocols, Nuzi and Mari legal
norms, and the archaeological «window» of Hebron's prosperity), the primary
factual and cultural core of Genesis Chapter 35 must be dated to the Middle
Bronze Age, specifically between the 18th and 16th centuries BCE.
Contrary to hypotheses suggesting a late (Iron Age) literary reconstruction, Genesis Chapter 35 contains specific details—such as precise medical diagnoses, vanished legal norms, and exact archaeological locations—that would have been inaccessible to compilers in the 1st millennium BCE. The text serves as an authentic witness to the early 2nd millennium BCE, capturing the actual historical, ethnic, and medico-social landscape of the Patriarchal era.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 16, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 35. About round ligament of femur. March 16, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
NB! Fair practice / use: copied for the purposes of criticism, review, comment, research and private study in accordance with Copyright Laws of the US: 17 U.S.C. §107; Copyright Law of the EU: Dir. 2001/29/EC, art.5/3a,d; Copyright Law of the RU: ГК РФ ст.1274/1.1-2,7
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