Who, When, and Where Wrote the Book of Genesis? A Medical Hypothesis
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Introduction [iii] Egyptian physician [iv] Asian diviner [v] Conclusion [vi] References [vii] Application |
The Book
of Genesis is an example of an ancient literary text that contains
important medical insights. We propose that it was written in northern Egypt in
the late 17th century BCE, approximately ten years after the Minoan eruption.
The protograph likely emerged from the collaboration between an Asiatic seer,
who rose to the rank of an Egyptian official, and an Egyptian
physician-encyclopedist. By refining its dating and authorship, this hypothesis
positions Genesis as a credible source of medical and historical data,
thereby enhancing its value for interdisciplinary research.
According to Rabbinic Judaism, the Book of Genesis*,
emerged around the 13th century BCE, although critical scholarship suggests a
possible composition in the 5th century BCE (Oliver 2017: 11–12.). Some scholars propose that the earliest fragments
incorporated into the Pentateuch date to the 10th century BCE (Suggs, Sakenfeld & Mueller 1992:
5). A view indirectly supported by the earliest Hebrew inscriptions,
which are dated to the late 11th or early 10th century BCE (Misgav, Garfinkel & Ganor 2009:
243). However, this does not exclude the possibility that the First
Book of Moses was originally composed in a different language and at a
different time.
* We have analyzed the English
translation from Hebrew and quoted the Book of Genesis from: Leeser 1922.
The
mythological narratives of the Book of Genesis are interwoven with
passages that convey philosophical concepts and episodes related to real
medical practice. The history of the development of medicine as a human
endeavor is well documented, which helps to clarify the text’s origin and the
possible identity of its author.
The
description of an archaic surgical procedure on Adam's chest (Genesis 2:21)
would intrigue any physician. It implies anaesthesia, a skin incision, rib
resection, and wound closure. Thoracotomy is inconceivable without a set of
instruments, suturing materials, artificial lung ventilation, and methods of
pain relief. The earliest analogous narrative in entertaining prose is the
Sumerian legend of the land of Dilmun, which primitively describes the healing
of the rib of the god Enki by the goddess Nin-ti (Kramer 1961: 103). The
first detailed medical discussion of ribs appears in the ancient Egyptian Edwin
Smith Papyrus, which addresses their sprains, dislocations, fractures, and its
palpation in the wound (Breasted
1930: 392, 398, 401, 402). The compiler of this trauma manual lived circa
1650–1550 BCE, no later than the 17th Dynasty (Sanchez & Burridge 2007: 1). He could only
dream of chest surgery with rib resection under general anesthesia.
Evidence
of treatment with cutting tools in the Mediterranean is found on the skull of
an Egyptian who lived between 2686 and 2345 BCE (3rd–5th Dynasties, Old
Kingdom) (Tondini, Isidro & Camarós 2024: 2). By 2400
BCE, surgical operations were regularly performed on the banks of the Nile (Gabriel 2012: 74). Texts from the New Kingdom period (1567–1085 BCE)
indicate a decline in surgical practice (Rowling 1989: 316). The medical
knowledge of the Sumerians was highly pragmatic, but during the later
Babylonian period (1700–600 BCE) it became distorted by mysticism (Gabriel 2012: 55). This brief
excursion into the early history of surgery confirms that the concept of
thoracotomy could have been envisioned by a physician working within in the Old
or Middle Kingdom of Egypt.
Abraham
and his tribesmen undergo circumcision following their visit to Egypt (Genesis
13:1; 17:24–27). The Book of Genesis references this surgical
procedure multiple times (Genesis 18:23–27; 21:4; 35:24). Notably, the
author of this prose work not only demonstrates knowledge of foreskin
circumcision but also appears to be aware of the timing and specifics of the
postoperative period (Genesis 34:25). The earliest depiction of this
procedure is found in a fresco from the reign of the 5th Dynasty king Djedkare,
dated to 2388–2356 BCE (Megahed
& Vymazalová 2011: 155; Bunson: 105).
The author
of our primary source also pays attention to ophthalmology. Jacob’s wife, Leah,
likely suffered from severe myopia (Genesis 29:17). Isaac’s “eyes were
too dim to see,” effectively rendering him blind (Genesis 27:1, 18).
Similarly, “the eyes of Israel were dim with age, and he could not see” (Genesis
48:10). The blindness of Isaac and Jacob was likely caused by trachoma, a
chronic bacterial eye infection common in poor agricultural regions. The
attribution of blindness to Jacob appears to be a literary device, as suggested
by his final speech, which comforts and inspires his sons (Genesis
49:1). This speech resembles the blind Egyptian Harpers’ Songs, which
were intended to console the tomb’s occupant (Lichtheim 2019: 242).
The First
Book of Moses addresses clinical observations in the fields of gynaecology
and obstetrics. The text describes the death of a parturient, presumably due to
profuse postpartum haemorrhage (Genesis 35:18–19). For a time, women
from three generations of one family suffered from infertility (Genesis
11:30; 25:21; 29:31). The narrative repeatedly emphasises that children are
born through the involvement of men, who synthesise reproductive material (Genesis
30:17; 37:9). The author cleverly debunks the folk belief in the efficacy of
mandrakes in overcoming difficulties with conception. Specifically, Rachel
obtains the desired herb but remains unable to conceive for an extended period,
while her sister, who provided the plant, gives birth to two sons and a
daughter (Genesis 30:14, 17–21). Since ancient times, the mandrake has
been known primarily for its sedative, hypnotic, and amnestic properties. Its
depiction appears in several tombs in Luxor–Thebes (Upper Egypt), dating from
the 16th to the 14th century BCE (Chidiac, Kaddoum & Fuleihan: 2012: 1437–1438).
In the Gynecological
Papyrus Kahun, created during Egypt’s Middle Kingdom (ca. 1825 BCE).,
reproductive pathologies and complications of childbirth are discussed, along
with methods to improve conception and contraception, as well as the diagnosis
of infertility and pregnancy (Haimov-Kochman, Sciaky-Tamir & Hurwitz 2005: 4). The First
Book of Moses also speaks of a certain diagnosis of a multiple pregnancy (Genesis
25:23). The ancient Egyptian Westcar Papyrus, dating from the Hyksos
period, tells of the birth of triplets attended by a team of divine midwives (Lichtheim 2019: 265, 270).
Midwives are mentioned twice in the Book of Genesis (Genesis
35:17; 38:28). Multiple pregnancies are also mentioned twice (Genesis
25:24; 38:27). Both cases involve complications during childbirth, such as the
expulsion of small foetal parts (Genesis 25:26; 38:28). In one
instance, a midwife assisting the parturient repositions the child’s prolapsed
arm (Genesis 38:28–29). In another case, without the assistance of a
specialist, a child is born in an abnormal position with an outstretched arm (Genesis
25:26). This upper limb is inevitably pressed against the inner walls of the
birth canal by the head, sometimes resulting in a fracture of the humerus. Such
an injury almost certainly causes radial nerve paralysis (Watson-Jones 1952: 351). A fracture of the humerus with the arm hanging
helplessly, possibly due to associated nerve damage, is described in the Edwin
Smith Papyrus (Breasted 1930: 355).
The Book
of Genesis describes a rare anomaly of hair growth in Esau (Genesis
25:25; 27:11, 23). This likely refers to congenital hypertrichosis lanuginosa
or congenital generalised hypertrichosis (Wendelin, Pope & Mallory 2003:
164-165). The earliest written evidence of hypertrichosis appears in the
Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh, recorded between 2000 and 1800 BCE (Sommer 2004:
145). In particular, Enkidu is described as having “his
whole body shaggy with hair.” (Kovacs 1989: 6). Esau appears to be
a reincarnation of Enkidu, while the journeys of the demigod Gilgamesh resemble
those of Jacob. Simultaneously, Jacob shares traits with the Egyptian fugitive-traveller
Sinuhe (Parkinson 1997: 28). Earlier still, the
Pyramid Texts of the 5th–6th Dynasties reflect the wanderings of Osiris, who
was killed by his brother Set (Griffiths 1980: 7). In an older
analogue, the slain Osiris travels in a coffin to Byblos and back, later as
dismembered parts across the land, before being reassembled and departing to
the underworld. The myth of Osiris recalls Cain's murder of his brother Abel (Genesis
4:8). It is well known that ancient authors freely compiled material from
existing works (Lambert 1985: 115).
Beyond
discussing somatic diseases, the author of the First Book of Moses
addresses psychiatric issues. Abraham’s first spiritual communication occurs
upon entering adulthood (Genesis 12:1–3). In advanced age, he
continues to periodically perceive the voices of supernatural beings and
converse with them (Genesis 15:1, 17; 17:1; 22:1, 11, 15). A rational
explanation for the religious visions of the First Patriarch may be a brain
lesion caused by a slowly progressing volumetric process. We propose that the
occult phenomena in his prototype were triggered by a cyst resulting from a
zoonotic disease prevalent among pastoralists: cysticercosis or echinococcosis.
Isaac initially lacks religious visions, with only two recorded instances, one
clearly a dream (Genesis 26:2, 24). Abraham and Isaac are depicted as
nomads raising “small and large cattle” (Genesis 46:32; 47:3). The
transmission of pathogens causing cystic echinococcosis involves canines, wild,
and domesticated ungulates (Moro
& Schantz 2009: 125-126). Cysticercosis is primarily contracted from pigs and
large cattle (Zammarchi et
al. 2013: 1). Systematic autopsies have identified echinococcosis in sheep, goats,
cattle, and camels, and cysticercosis in goats, sheep, and cattle (Dada & Belino 1978: 311). It is
documented that the localisation of parasitic formations in the brain can
induce auditory and visual hallucinations in certain patients (Bekény & Péter 1973: 237;
Asri et al. 2007: 216).
In light
of the above, the genesis of the narrative about the destruction of Sodom and
Gomorrah (Genesis 19:24–25) becomes clear. If not the invention of a
talented writer, it represents an embellished retelling of a hallucination
provoked by daytime heat (Genesis 18:1). Beyond perceptual
distortions, Abraham’s narrative includes judgements inconsistent with reality.
Delusions of grandeur are implied in the divine promises of future power and
dominion (Genesis 12:1–3; 15:18–21; 18:17–19). The account of
Abimelech’s oppression resembles delusions of persecution (Genesis
20:2). Delusions of influence are suggested in the verses describing God’s
command to sacrifice Isaac (Genesis 22:2). The mental disturbances of
such a literary character, as in real life, evoke sympathy not only from
physicians.
A
different cause underlies the fantastical vision of Jacob at the city of Luz (Genesis
28:19). From a materialist perspective, this represents an episode of hypoxia
during sleep, caused by a sharp tilt of the neck while the head rested on a
large stone (Genesis 28:11–17). Acute and chronic oxygen deficiency in
the blood affects the temporoparietal junction and prefrontal cortex, regions associated
with mystical experiences and altered body perception (Arzy et al. 2005: 843). Insufficient cerebral oxygenation can induce
confusion during sleep (Chokroverty 2007: 159).
For
millennia, the struggle and communication of Jacob with either an angel or God
at the Jabbok River (Genesis 32:25–30) has remained an enigma. This
narrative bears a direct analogy to the dream of a patient, likely afflicted
with typhoid fever, as depicted in the seventh tablet of the Epic of
Gilgamesh (Kovacs 1989: 64). A later Hittite ritual text portrays a similar
confrontation between the goddess Khebat and a king. The Hittite and biblical
accounts share striking similarities in content, but in the former, it is an
isolated event integrated into a ritual, whereas in the latter, it forms part
of a historical narrative (Tsevat 1983:
322).
Hallucinations,
disorientation, and derealisation in mentally healthy individuals can be
induced by sleep deprivation, nocturnal solitude, and mental or physical
exhaustion (Mullaney et al. 1983: 645-646; Chaudhury
2010: 8-9). These conditions are present in the description of Jacob’s activities
before and after crossing the stream (Genesis 32:23–24). His other
dreams (Genesis 31:10; 45:2–3) are perceived as commonplace. In
contrast, the divine appearances at Shechem and below Beth-el (Genesis
35:1, 8–9) stand out as likely later interpolations. References to Damascus (Genesis
14:15; 15:2), Rameses (Genesis 47:11), Midian (Genesis 37:28,
36), and the kings of Israel (Genesis 36:31) also appear to be
editorial revisions of the protograph.
The
narrative includes a description of an anthrax epidemic. During Sarah’s stay in
the pharaoh’s quarters, a disease afflicts the courtiers, manifesting as “great
plagues” (Genesis 12:17). Cutaneous anthrax arises from direct contact
of a wound with animal products or through the bite of an insect vector (World Health Organization 2008: 2). The
bacillus is carried by blood-sucking insects up to four kilometres away (Fasanella et al. 2013: 769). It appears that
the author implies the presence of an infected animal in Abraham’s herd,
located near the royal palace during his conversation with the ruler (Genesis
12:19). According to historical records, in 1733 BCE, the pharaoh Sihathor dies
before ascending the throne for an unknown reason, followed by Neferhotep I in
1731 BCE. Earlier, in 1732 BCE, the throne passes to his brother Sobkhotep IV (Ryholt & Bülow-Jacobsen 1997: 408). It
seems that, according to the author’s intent, Abraham arrives in Egypt in 1733
BCE, where an anthrax epidemic begins to rage. Among the first victims is
Sihathor, followed later by Neferhotep I, who manages to appoint a successor.
According to this scenario, the expulsion of Abraham’s family from Egypt should
be dated to 1732–1731 BCE. Recognising a connection between the epidemic and
the arrival of foreigners, they are prudently spared but expelled from the
state along with their livestock (Genesis 12:20). To prevent infection
of the native population and land, the foreigners are neither killed nor
stripped of their possessions (Genesis 13:1–2). The prohibition on
communal dining between the Egyptians and foreign shepherds is a reasonable
precaution rather than an expression of disdain (Genesis 43:32;
46:34).
The text
contains observations related to traumatology and pathological anatomy. Jacob
returns from his journey as an Asiatic, akin to the ancient Egyptian Sinuhe (Parkinson 1997: 40). He crosses the Jabbok River, transporting
his possessions, children, and livestock to the opposite bank (Genesis 32:23–24).
The narrative then describes his struggle with a stranger at night and the
dislocation of his hip (Genesis 32:25–26). Implicitly, the account
suggests a twisting of the leg at the hip joint during a hasty crossing of the
river. Following such an accident, the injured person may walk, but with a limp
on “his thigh.” (Genesis 32:32). Like a medical manual, the author
explains the morphological cause of the altered gait: damage to the “sinew” of
the thigh (Genesis 32:33). The physician Moses ben Maimon, who lived in
the 12th–13th centuries, held this opinion (Maimon c1986-c2007:
8.1.). In the
20th century, the Talmudist physician Julius Preuss confirmed this judgment (Preuss 2004: 132). Modern doctors also note changes in gait due to
damage to the ligament of the head of femur (Byrd & Jones 2004: 387). Such an injury may subsequently lead to
persistent lameness and debilitating osteoarthritis of the hip joint (Arkhipov &
Skvortsov 2019: 157).
Dislocations
of the jaw, vertebrae, and clavicle are discussed in the Edwin Smith Papyrus
( Breasted 1930: 303,
323, 342). It is possible that the second volume of this tract may have
mentioned dislocation of the femur. The earliest information on the morphology
of the human hip joint and its changes during injury is found in Homer's Iliad
(Homer
1924: 217). The first mention of the ligament of the head of femur in humans
appears in the treatise Mochlicus by Hippocrates of Cos (born 460 BCE) (Adams 1886: 162). The
earliest reports of damage to this structure in hip dislocation are found in
the works of the physician Heraclides of Tarentum and the surgeon Hegetor, both
active in Alexandria in the third to second centuries BCE (Arkhipov & Prolygina 2020: 539-40).
How could
the author of the Book of Genesis have known about the ligament of the
head of femur before Greek physicians? The text reveals familiarity with
thoracic surgery, andrology, obstetrics, gynaecology, ophthalmology,
traumatology, psychiatry, epidemiology, pharmacognosy, teratology, medical
genetics, and normal and pathological anatomy. The writer was knowledgeable in
pharmacology and anaesthesiology, employed induced sleep, and understood the
soporific effects of alcohol (Genesis 2:21; 9:21, 24). This intellectual
was versed in selective breeding (Genesis 30:40–42), veterinary science
(Genesis 24:35; 31:38–39; 32:6, 16; 49:6), and embalming (Genesis
50:2–3). This talented individual also contemplated the possibility of human
cloning (Genesis 2:22). It seems that the idea of using a rib came from
the observation of a whole plant growing from a leaf or branch. Our primary
source reflects the author’s knowledge of history, geography, economics,
biology, astronomy, cosmology, geophysics, meteorology, geology, technology,
bromatology, agriculture, metallurgy, architecture, and military affairs.
This
representative of a rare cohort of polymaths was comparable to Aristotle. In
the Chester Beatty Papyrus IV (BM 10684), composed no earlier than the
end of the 19th Dynasty, lists
prominent ancient Egyptian intellectuals of past centuries: Hardedef,
Imhotep, Nofri, Akhthoy, Ptahemdjedhuty, Khakheperrasenb, Ptahhotep, and Kairos
(Gardiner 1935: 28, 39).
However, the individual we seek possessed a profound medical education and knew
Nineveh (Genesis 10:11), which ceased to be mentioned after 612 BCE (Dalley 1993: 134). Physicians
from Jewish communities did not achieve prominence until the Middle Ages (Castiglioni 1947: 77).
Babylonian medicine incorporated a significant amount of magic (Geller 2010: 8). As
noted, “Like the Babylonians of later days, the Sumerians attributed numerous
diseases to the unwelcome presence of harmful demons in the sick man’s body.” (Kramer 1981: 64).
We are
convinced that the creation of the Book of Genesis involved a
physician-encyclopaedist. He could only have appeared in Egypt before the New
Kingdom, that is, approximately before 1550 BCE. This specialist was capable of
producing a surgical treatise. There is only one document from that distant era
distinguished by the exceptional expertise of the earliest known surgeon in
history—the Edwin Smith Papyrus (Breasted 1930: 92). It was composed
during the 16th–17th Dynasties, around 1600 BCE (Allen 2005:
70). It is
reveals for the first time the personality of a physician probing the mysteries
of the human body, identifying processes and conditions resulting from physical
factors (Fisher &
Shaw 2005: 43, 45–46). The treatise is written with coherent,
dispassionate authority that commands respect for the intellect and stature of
its scientific author (Rowling 1989: 313). The
cases presented in the manuscript often stem from pathological-anatomical
investigation, which was not uncommon for the composer (Breasted 1930: xvi).
The First
Book of Moses implies the presence of such a specialist. We propose that
Joseph entrusted this individual with leading a team of physicians and
embalmers of Jacob’s body (Genesis 50:2). It is plausible that this
physician concurrently conducted a post-mortem examination of the hip joint,
identifying the cause of the deceased’s limp (Arkhipov & Skvortsov 2019:
157). Egyptian priests likely obstructed anatomical studies and surgical
practices, which explains the limited understanding of human anatomy evident in
medical texts (Gabriel
2012: 74). The influence of the native priesthood waned in the northern Nile
Delta during the Second Intermediate Period. At that time, Asiatic settlers
predominated there and continued to establish themselves in the region of
Avaris until the end of Hyksos rule (Bietak 2018: 79).
Our
primary source reveals a multitude of medical observations and elements of
entertaining literature, but it is dominated by the legends of a single tribe.
There is a sense that this collection of traditions is intended to elevate the
status of Joseph. He is depicted as eloquent, cunning, literate, ambitious,
with a vivid imagination and an excellent memory. Joseph is presented as the
son of an Asiatic woman, born in Haran (Genesis 29:5–6; 30:22–23). His
oratorical and prophetic talents manifest early (Genesis 37:5–11). As a
youth, he is a shepherd who moves from the provinces to a metropolitan city (Genesis
37:2, 28, 36). Through successful prophecies, he advances his career and,
according to the legend, rises to the position of prime minister (Genesis
40:8; 41:15, 40; 45:6). We propose that Joseph, or his prototype, was the
primary author of the Book of Genesis, working in collaboration with a
physician. Whether he actually attained a high position or merely aspired to
one, legitimisation and popularisation were necessary for career advancement.
In the past, those aspiring to administrative roles created a mythical
framework around themselves, hoping it would appear so authentic as to render
their authority widely accepted (Почекаев 2024: 6).
In the
Nile Valley, individuals emerged who combined magic, medicine, and an interest
in literature. Evidence of this is found in a tomb beneath the mortuary temple
of Ramesses II, which contained a library known as the Ramesseum Papyri,
dated to the 13th Dynasty (1755–1640 BCE). The last individual buried in this
multi-chambered tomb likely belonged to a family of priests associated with
writing, magic, ritual, and healing (Parkinson 2009:
189). The deceased also “took” copies of classic prose works and
medico-magical manuscripts to the grave (Raven 2012: 77). Joseph forged a
familial connection with the priesthood of Heliopolis (Genesis 41:45,
50; 46:20). This diviner could have been a writer, but he was assisted by a
professional doctor, since our primary source contains an incredible amount of
medical facts.
In the
work under consideration, only Joseph’s life path is meticulously delineated.
At the age of six, he migrates with his family to Canaan (Genesis 29:20,
30; 30:25–26; 31:17,41). At seventeen, he is “sold” into Egyptian slavery (Genesis
37:2, 28). In reality, lacking prospects for inheritance, he flees from a
nomadic farm to an urbanised world. By the age of thirty, Joseph is appointed
to rule “over all the land of Egypt” (Genesis 41:41, 46). As stated in
the text, he lived to be one hundred and ten years old (Genesis 50:22,
26). Ancient Egyptian texts frequently reference an ideal lifespan of 110 years
(Taylor 2001: 39).
The Ebers
Papyrus, composed later than the Edwin Smith Papyrus, is notable for
documenting a significant number of pathological conditions, possibly resulting
from the aftermath of a volcanic eruption (Trevisanato 2006: 188). It is plausible to
suggest that the author lived after a major volcanic eruption in the
Mediterranean region. The most significant such cataclysm in the Bronze Age was
the Minoan eruption of the Santorini volcano on Thera. Current analysis
indicates that the Minoan eruption was the largest in the Holocene (Johnston et al. 2014: 583).
Following such a catastrophe, phenomena comparable to the consequences of the
1815 Tambora eruption would have been observed: anomalous cooling, a “year without
summer,” crop failures, malnutrition and human diseases, livestock mortality,
and mass population migration (Oppenheimer
2003: 244).
Through
the radiocarbon dating of an olive branch buried during the Minoan eruption, it
has been established that the event undoubtedly occurred in the late 17th
century BCE, with a 95% probability between 1627 and 1600 BCE (Friedrich et al. 2006: 548). A
recent reassessment of fossil plant material from the Mediterranean has yielded
similar results: the volcano was active between 1619 and 1543 BCE with a 95.4%
probability, and between 1617 and 1601 BCE with a 62.8% probability (Manning et al. 2020: 9).
Meanwhile, the largest sulphate signal in the Bronze Age, indicative of
volcanic ash, found in a Greenland ice core, is dated to 1695 BCE (Clausen et al. 1997: 26713). It has
been determined that, for dating chemical compounds in Greenland ice from this
period, a correction of approximately 80 years is necessary, and carbon-dating
data cannot be precisely calibrated (Southon 2004: 1255). Consequently, the anomalous concentration of
sulphur compounds in Greenland likely precipitated around 1615 BCE. Based on
preserved insect remains from that period, it has been inferred that the
volcano “awakened” in the summer, likely in June or early July, after the
harvest (Panagiotakopulu
et al. 2013: 687). Ash and dust from the Santorini eruption were
carried by winds to the south and east (Druitt, McCoy & Vougioukalakis 2019: 186, 189). Ash
from the Minoan eruption has been found in the eastern Nile Delta (Stanley & Sheng 1986: 733).
The
eruption of the Santorini volcano is presumably reflected in the Egyptian Stele
of the Storm, which dates back to the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. On
this obelisk, Pharaoh Ahmose describes an extraordinary climatic catastrophe,
human casualties, and the destruction of buildings, while the intensification
of storms and rainfall likely continued for several more years (Ritner &
Moeller 2014: 14). The Hyksos, enemies of Ahmose, also noted this extraordinary
weather phenomenon, which is mentioned in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus.
Specifically, the document includes a note stating that, apparently, in early
September, there was a thunder-like event with no rainfall, and rain only came
the following day (Peet
1923: 129).
Our
primary source describes a famine “in all lands” (Genesis 41:54). This
implies that the food shortage was not linked to low Nile floods. It is further
stated that, after two years, “the famine intensified in the land,” with a
forecast of five more years “without ploughing or harvesting” (Genesis
43:1; 45:6). We propose that the authors intended to reference the consequences
of the Santorini volcanism, which adversely affected agriculture in the Eastern
Mediterranean. If this assumption is correct, the Book of Genesis was completed
after the Minoan eruption. The prototype of Joseph did not predict this event
but experienced it. This event serves as a reference point for dating the final
portion of the work.
Less
precisely verifiable temporal connections between the literary text and
historical reality include the anthrax epidemic in Egypt around 1733 BCE and
the destruction of Ur. Terah, Abraham, Sarah, and Lot abandon Ur (Genesis 11:31).
It seems most plausible that, at that time, Abraham was 25 years old, and Sarah
was ten years younger (Genesis 17:17). They were likely compelled to
flee their homeland permanently due to King Samsu-iluna, who destroyed Ur and
its walls, possibly in 1740 BCE (Brinkman 1969: 345). It is
doubtful that Terah’s emigration was associated with the fall of the Third
Dynasty of Ur in 2004 BCE (Samet 2014: 8).
Based on the aforementioned dates, we have attempted to reconstruct the chronology intended by the authors. In ancient Egypt, the harvest ripened between March and May (Noaman & Quosy 2017: 22). If the Santorini eruption occurred in 1615 BCE, then 1614 BCE marks the onset of the famine (Genesis 41:54).
Estimated Timeline of
Key Events in Abraham’s Family
|
Year before the
modern era
|
Events |
Links in the
original source
|
|
1541 |
Hypothetical death of Joseph at age 110 |
Genesis 50:22,26. |
|
1595 |
Hypothetical death of
Jacob |
Genesis 47:28; 49:33 |
|
1605 |
Presumed death of Jacob 7 years later |
Explanation in
the text |
|
1612 |
Jacob arrives in Egypt |
Genesis 45:6; 46:6 |
|
1614 |
Famine begins; Joseph is age 37 |
Genesis 41:53–54 |
|
1615 |
Minoan eruption |
Explanation in
the text |
|
1621 |
Joseph is appointed
to his position at age 30 |
Genesis 41:44,46 |
|
1634 |
Joseph arrives in Egypt at age 17 |
Genesis 37:2,28,36 |
|
1644 |
Family settles in Shechem |
Genesis 33:18-19 |
|
1645 |
Family leaves Haran; Joseph is age 6; Jacob
is injured at the Jabbok River |
Genesis 31:17-18,41; 32:26,33 |
|
1651 |
Joseph is born; Jacob enters final contract
with Laban |
Genesis 30:22-23,25-34 |
|
1658 |
Jacob's wedding |
Genesis 29:20,22 |
|
1665 |
Jacob flees to Haran at age 17? |
Genesis 27:43;
28:10; 29:1–4 |
|
1682 |
Birth of Esau and
Jacob |
Genesis 25:25–26 |
|
1707–1706 |
Birth of Isaac |
Genesis 21:2 |
|
1708–1707 |
Circumcision of
Abraham and Ishmael at age 13 |
Genesis 17:24–25 |
|
1721–1720 |
Birth of Ishmael |
Genesis 16:15 |
|
1722–1721 |
Conception of Ishmael |
Genesis 16:2–4 |
|
1732–1731 |
Abraham's family leaves Egypt |
Genesis 13:1 |
|
1733–1732 |
Anthrax epidemic in Egypt |
Genesis 12:17 |
|
1733–1732 |
Abraham and Sarah
arrive in Egypt |
Genesis 12:14 |
|
1740 |
Abraham (age 25?) and Sarah (age 15?) leave
Ur |
Genesis 11:31; 17:17 |
|
1755 |
Presumed birth of Sarah |
Explanation in
the text |
|
1765 |
Birth of Abraham |
Genesis 11:26 |
Presumably, in 1612 BCE, at the age of seventy, Jacob arrived in Egypt (Genesis 45:6; 46:6). Evidence of an increasing Asiatic population in the Avaris region is noted during the 13th Dynasty (circa 1773–1650 BCE) (Bard 2015: 188). However, a higher density of settlement in this area is observed later, specifically at the end of the Second Intermediate Period (Vilain 2021: 320). Archaeological finds at the ruins of Avaris (Tell el-Dab‘a) reveal artefacts indicating a fusion of Egyptian and Canaanite cultures, with the latter predominating (Redmount 1995: 182).
The text repeatedly, in various forms, conveys that the agricultural depression lasted seven years (Genesis 41:27, 30, 36, 54; 45:6, 11). Based on this, the authors suggest that Jacob lived in a foreign land for seven years. Thus, he likely died at approximately seventy-seven years of age. Consequently, soon after 1605 BCE, the narrative of the epic and, presumably, the work on it were completed. Joseph’s death and the mention of his age are presented as a forecast. Therefore, as a testament, we interpret the final verses regarding the embalming of his body and burial in Egypt (Genesis 50:26). This, we believe, represents the chronicle of the three Patriarchs as constructed by the authors. The destinies of four generations of this family reasonably fit within a span of approximately 150 years.
Having analysed the Book of Genesis with
consideration of its medical insights, we conclude that its initial version was
completed in the northern Nile Delta in the late 17th century BCE,
approximately a decade after the Minoan eruption. This literary work was
originally inscribed in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs or Proto-Sinaitic symbols.
Its authors were an Asiatic seer who became an official under a Hyksos pharaoh
and an Egyptian physician-intellectual. Subsequent editors modified the text to
align with religious and political agendas. The male co-authors of the
protograph, creating in the Bronze Age, shaped the patriarchal nature of the
narrative. These poetic creators placed their characters within clearly defined
temporal and geographical frameworks. Additionally, to convince readers of the
story’s authenticity, they incorporated descriptions of real natural phenomena
and the culture of the Fertile Crescent’s inhabitants. The narrative integrates
fragments of canonical literary monuments and implies familiar characters, adding
to the credibility. Thus, the account approaches the format of a universal
encyclopaedia. It was created with specific purposes in mind. The
seer-official, Joseph, crafted a legend about his people’s arrival in Egypt,
glorified his ancestors, and legitimised himself as a holder of authority. The
physician-polymath demonstrated the breadth of his knowledge and depth of
understanding of medico-social issues. We propose naming him Imhotep the
Younger. Attributing a name to this talented physician facilitates crediting
him with the earliest documentation of significant medical facts recorded in
Genesis. One such fact is the earliest mention of the ligament of the head of
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Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer,
Joensuu, Finland.
Arkhipova L.N. – Bachelor of Nursing, Joensuu,
Finland.
Correspondence:
Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article
history
November 11, 2025 - online version of the article published.
Suggested
citation
Arkhipov S.V, Arkhipova L.N. Who, When, and Where Wrote the Book of Genesis? A Medical Hypothesis. About round ligament of femur. November 11, 2025. https://roundligament.blogspot.com/2025/11/who-when-and-where-wrote-book-of-genesis.html
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.21265.29289;
PDF version: researchgate.net , academia.edu , drive.google.com
Discussion: medium.com
Note
Keywords
Ligamentum capitis femoris, Ligamentum teres, Ligament of head of femur, Genesis, Ancient texts, Minoan eruption, Ancient Egypt, Interdisciplinary research, Medical hypothesis, Proto-Genesis, Authorship
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