English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 32
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 32 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 32 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 32 Analysis
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Excerpts from the Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:40-41)
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Type of Similarity and Justification |
Ancient Near Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels, Analogies, Similarity, Borrowings,
Inversions)
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2 And Jacob Avent on his way, and there met him
angels of God. 3 And when Jacob saw them, he said, This is a host of God ;
and he called the name of that place Machanayim.
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Etymological Resonance The identified phono-semantic similarity suggests
that the author of Genesis utilized an ancient lexical stratum characteristic
of the Egypto-Mesopotamian area during the Bronze Age.
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Egypt Regarding the
Egyptian linguistic context, the word
«m’hanem’» was used, the translation of which remains unclear
(1920BudgeEAW:998). Furthermore,
the Egyptian concept «maḫan», denoting a type of wooden chest, is
attested; an instance of its usage in Akkadian texts is represented as «ma-ḫa-an»
(2004OppenheimAL:10.50). |
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4 And Jacob sent messengers before him to Esau his
brother unto the land of Seir, the country of Edom. |
Transregional
Cartography The mention of
Edom and Seir confirms the use in the Book of Genesis of Egyptian geographic
landmarks recorded in the official documents of the frontier service.
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Egypt In the geographical
lists from Soleb and
Amarah (15th century BCE) toponyms related to the «land of Shasu» are found,
among which is «Seir» – a mountainous region east of the Arava (Timna)
(1993RedfordDB:272). Moreover, «Papyrus Anastasi IV» (19th Dynasty)
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4 And Jacob sent messengers before him to Esau his
brother unto the land of Seir, the country of Edom. 5 And he commanded them,
saying, Thus shall ye speak unto my lord, to Esau, Thus hath said thy servant
Jacob, With Laban have I sojourned, and stayed until now. … 11 I am not
worthy of all the kindness, and of all the truth, which thou hast shown unto
thy servant; for with my staff I passed over this Jordan; and now I am become
two bands. … 19 Then shalt thou say. They belong to thy servant, to Jacob; it
is a present sent unto my lord, to Esau; and, behold, also, he is himself
behind us. 20 And so he commanded also the second, also the third, as also
all that followed the droves, saying. After this manner shall ye speak unto
Esau, when ye find him. 21 And say ye moreover. Behold, also thy servant
Jacob is behind us. For he said, I will appease him with the present that
goeth before me, and afterward I will see his face ; peradventure he will
receive me kindly.
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Diplomatic
Identity The established
structural similarity of rhetorical formulas «your servant» confirms the use
in the Book of Genesis of an authentic protocol of interstate and social
correspondence from the Middle Bronze Age. |
Mesopotamia The standard opening of vassal correspondence from
the Mari archives contains the formula «your servant». For instance, a letter from
Kibri-Dagan to his lord Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 210) states: «Say to my Lord:
Thus (spoke) Kibri-Dagan, your servant.» (1988CharpinD:439–440). Likewise, a letter from Askudum and
Rishiya to their lord Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 11) reports: «Say to our Lord: Thus speak Askudum and
Rishiya, your servants.» (1988CharpinD:107–109). Similarly, a letter from Shibtu to her lord
Zimri-Lim (ARM 26/1 214) records:
«Say to my Lord: Thus speaks Shibtu, your servant: In the temple of
Annunitum in the city of Ahatum, the servant of Dagan-Malik prophesied and
said the following…» (1988CharpinD:442–443). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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6 And I have acquired oxen, and asses, flocks, and
men-servants, and women-servants ; and I send now to tell my lord, to find
grace in thy eyes. … 16 Thirty milch camels with their colts, forty cows, and
ten bulls, twenty she-asses, and ten foals.
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Zootechnological
Continuity Recording the
mastery of specialized veterinary techniques (castration) necessary for
raising oxen as the primary draft and meat resource. |
Egypt The «Pyramid Texts» (2350–2175 BCE), Utterance № 437
(807c), state: «thy thousand of oxen, thy thousand of all things which
thou eatest, on which thy heart is set» (1952MercerSAB:237). Compare: The «Pyramid Texts» (2350–2175 BCE), Utterance № 438
(809c), we read: «thy father is the great wild bull, thy mother is the young
cow (lit. girl, or damsel).» (1952MercerSAB:237). In the «Story of
Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «The sky is above you as you lie in the hearse, oxen drawing you,
musicians going before you.» (2006LichtheimM:1.229). Furthermore, in the «Three Tales of Wonder» (Papyrus
Westcar, Hyksos period), we read: «His majesty had an ox brought to him, and
its head was cut off. Djedi said his say of magic, and the ox stood up.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.219).
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6 And I have acquired oxen, and asses, flocks, and
men-servants, and women-servants ; and I send now to tell my lord, to find
grace in thy eyes. … 16 Thirty milch camels with their colts, forty cows, and
ten bulls, twenty she-asses, and ten foals.
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Zootechnological
Continuity Recording the
mastery of specialized veterinary techniques (castration) necessary for
raising oxen as the primary draft and meat resource.
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Mesopotamia Oxen are mentioned in the «Code of Hammurabi» (ca.
1760 BCE): Ǥ 224. If a veterinary surgeon operate on an ox or an ass for a
severe wound and save its life, the owner of the ox or ass shall give to the
physician, as his fee, one-sixth of a shekel of silver. § 225. If he operate
on an ox or an ass for a severe wound and cause its death, he shall give to
the owner of the ox or ass one-fourth its value.» (1920HandcockPSP:35; hist.msu.ru).
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6 And I have acquired oxen, and asses, flocks, and
men-servants, and women-servants ; and I send now to tell my lord, to find
grace in thy eyes. … 16 Thirty milch camels with their colts, forty cows, and
ten bulls, twenty she-asses, and ten foals.
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Iconographic and
Socio-Religious Isomorphism of the «Divine Shepherd» References to
Jacob's numerous flocks and his status as a wealthy livestock owner correlate
with the Near Eastern and Egyptian archetype of the ideal shepherd-king
(Osiris, Dumuzi). |
Egypt As noted in scholarly
literature, «A substantial
number of clear mutual borrowings link Osiris and the Asian dying god,
Tammuz-Adonis (the Babylonian Dumuzi-Duzi), creating difficulties in
resolving the question of the priority of Asia or Egypt» (2021МюллерМ:127). Historically,
Dumuzi (Tammuz) is an ancient Mesopotamian god of shepherds,
fertility, water, and vegetation. Notably,
like Dumuzi, Osiris was revered as a skilled shepherd. For instance, in Utterance № 578 (1533a-b) of the «Pyramid Texts»,
dated to 2350–2175 BCE, it is implied that Osiris was a shepherd: «Thou dost
not know them; thou art astonished at them; thou hast laid them in thine arms
like herdsmen of thy calves.» (1952MercerSAB:389). Furthermore, in Spell № 728 of the «Coffin Texts»
corpus (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), the receipt of a staff by Osiris is mentioned,
and further down, he is referred to as the Great Shepherd
(1977FaulknerRO:277,278). Similarly, in the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (12th Dynasty), we
find: «See, noblewomen go hungry, And serfs are sated with what was made for them.
See, all the ranks, they are not in their place, Like a herd that roams
without a herdsman. <…> Lo, why does he seek to fashion (men), when the
timid is not distinguished from the violent ? If he would bring coolness upon
the heat, one would say: "He is the herdsman of all; there is no evil in
his heart. His herds are few, but he spends the day herding them."»
(2006LichtheimM:1.158–159). Nevertheless,
it is argued that «The borrowing of Asian motifs by Egyptian mythology
never seriously altered Egyptian thought, nor could this be achieved by the
few Asian deities who were worshipped in Egypt at one time» (2021МюллерМ:251).
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7 And the messengers returned to Jacob, saying, We
came to thy brother, to Esau, and also he cometh to meet thee, and four
hundred men with him. |
Military-Administrative
Isomorphism The specified
size of Esau's forces corresponds to the actual strength of Middle Kingdom
contingents employed for regional military and political missions.
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Egypt In the historical
records of the Middle Kingdom, on the wall of the tomb of the nomarch
Amenemhat, who served Senusret I, there is an inscription: «I sailed south [along the Nile] with all the
chosen men, numbering 400, from my army,» and the expedition was led by the
future Pharaoh Amenemhat II (2004РакИВ:194).
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8 Then Jacob was greatly afraid, and he felt
distressed ; and he divided the people that were with him, and the flocks,
and the herds, and the camels, into two bands. … 16 Thirty milch camels with
their colts, forty cows, and ten bulls, twenty she-asses, and ten foals.
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Zooarchaeological
Verification The mention of
camels as part of the property reveals a direct correlation with
archaeological data confirming the presence and domestication of these
animals in Egypt and the Sinai as early as the Early and Middle Kingdom
periods.
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Egypt Historically, the domestication of camels occurred at the beginning
of the third millennium BCE in their natural habitats: the dromedary
(one-humped camel) in southeast Arabia, and the Bactrian (two-humped camel)
in southwest Central Asia. Within the territory of Egypt, several artifacts
have been discovered, including a vessel in the form of a couchant camel (1st
Dynasty), several camel models (4th Dynasty), a depiction of a camel caravan
(6th Dynasty), and an image and inscription dating back to the 19th century
BCE found in the Sinai (2017SalaR).
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10 And Jacob said, God of my father Abraham, and God
of my father Isaac, the Lord who saidst unto me. Return unto thy country, and
to thy birthplace, and I will deal well with thee : 11 I am not worthy of all
the kindness, and of all the truth, which thou hast shown unto thy servant;
for with my staff I passed over this Jordan; and now I am become two bands.
12 Deliver me, I pray thee, from the hand of my brother, from the hand of
Esau ; for I fear him, lest he will come and smite me, the mother with the children.
13 And thou saidst, I will surely do thee good, and make thy seed as the sand
of the sea, which cannot be numbered for multitude.
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Ethical-Chronological
Divergence of Religious Consciousness The profound
humility and awe before the deity are consistent with the significant
'spiritual distance' characteristic of the early era. This makes the
composition of such a text in later periods problematic, as deities in later
literature began to be endowed with caricatured human vices.
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Egypt As illustrated in the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «
Whichever god decreed this flight, have mercy, bring me home! Surely you will
let me see the place in which my heart dwells! What is more important than
that my corpse be buried in the land in which I was born!»
(2006LichtheimM:1.228). However, in later
periods, the attitude toward the gods underwent a significant change. For
instance, in the myth of the «Contendings of Horus
and Seth» (second half of
the New Kingdom), the god Ra is
presented as a frail old man; the other gods argue with him, tease him, and
he requires advisors. Meanwhile, the gods Horus and Seth are depicted as
pugnacious youths and brawlers, and Isis appears as a persistent deceiver (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ). |
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11 I am not worthy of all the kindness, and of all
the truth, which thou hast shown unto thy servant; for with my staff I passed
over this Jordan; and now I am become two bands. |
Iconographic and Mythopoetic
Parallelism of Attributes of Power The image of
crossing a water barrier with a staff, signifying symbolic transformation and
the affirmation of authority. |
Egypt In Spell № 728 of the «Coffin Texts» corpus (ca. 2134–2040
BCE), the receipt of a staff by Osiris is mentioned, and further down, he is
referred to as the Great Shepherd (1977FaulknerRO:277,278). In a similar vein, Spell № 72, also from the corpus of the «Coffin
Texts», mentions the staff of Osiris and the crossing of a water barrier: «The gods come to you bowing, the Morning Star rejoices
at you, he brings to you! what is in the Abyss; you strike with the sceptre
and with the staff. You cross the lake, you traverse the Waterway of the Two
Sheep. Do not say: It is who say this. It is Geb and Osiris who say this to
you.» (1973FaulknerRO:67).
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11 I am not worthy of all the kindness, and of all
the truth, which thou hast shown unto thy servant; for with my staff I passed
over this Jordan; and now I am become two bands. |
Sociocultural and
Status-Domestic Parallelism The mention of
the staff as a mandatory attribute of personal status, legal capacity, and
the dignity of a free man of this era.
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Mesopotamia As documented in the 12th tablet of the «Epic of Gilgamesh» (late 3rd
millennium BCE), a friend advises the hero Enkidu: «A staff in your hand you
must not carry» (1961ДьяконовИМ:85). The standard version of the «Epic of Gilgamesh» was first
written in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600 BCE) (1989KovacsMG:xxii). Later, Herodotus (5th century BCE) notes that «Every
Babylonian possesses a seal-ring and a staff of exquisite workmanship. On
every staff is carved an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or something
similar» (1972Геродот:195).
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11 I am not worthy of all the kindness, and of all
the truth, which thou hast shown unto thy servant; for with my staff I passed
over this Jordan; and now I am become two bands. |
Topographic
Authenticity The identified
spatial similarity between the biblical narrative and the physical geography
of the region confirms the historical rootedness of the text in the actual
landscape of Palestine.
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Levant From a geographical
perspective, the Jordan
originates in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains at altitudes up to 3000 meters. Subsequently, the the river
flows south, forming the Sea of Galilee, upon exiting which it flows through
the Jordan Valley, surrounded by the Judean (Judeo-Samarian), Gilead, and
Abarim mountains. Ultimately, the stream discharges into the Dead Sea. Notably, the distance traversed
by the river between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea is approximately 105
km (2024АрхиповСВ:80).
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23 And he rose up that night, and he took his two
wives, and his two women-servants, and his eleven sons, and passed over the
ford of the Yabbok. |
Logistic Realism The identified
behavioral similarity in the organization of nocturnal transitions confirms
the author's profound familiarity with the daily realities and caravan
practices of the Ancient Near East.
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Egypt, Middle East In the literary
narrative of the «Story of Sinuhe»
(Middle Kingdom) the hero recalls: «I set out at night. At dawn I reached
Peten.» (2006LichtheimM:1.224). Historically,
logistical practice has established that: «...it is better to set a caravan in motion before dawn at 3 a.m.»,
move until nine in the morning, and resume the journey after 4 p.m. (1964ЛакозаИИ_ЩекинВА).
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23 And he rose up that night, and he took his two
wives, and his two women-servants, and his eleven sons, and passed over the
ford of the Yabbok. |
Topographic
Authenticity The identified
spatial similarity between the biblical narrative and the physical geography
of the region confirms the historical rootedness of the text in the actual
landscape of Palestine
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Levant The third most significant watercourse in Jordan is
the Nahr ez-Zarqa (Blue River), also referred to as: Seil ez-Zarqa, Zarqa,
Zerka, Yabbok, Jabbok, or Iabbok. In
the Russian Bible, it appears as Yavok [Jabbok] (2024АрхиповСВ:80). |
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23 And he rose up that night, and he took his two
wives, and his two women-servants, and his eleven sons, and passed over the
ford of the Yabbok. 24 And he took them, and sent them over the stream, and
sent over what he had.
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Sacral-Domestic
Isomorphism of the Transition The reproduction
of the archetype of a salvific crossing through the waters, where the
physical act of ferrying the family is endowed with the mythological
significance of preparation for an encounter with the deity.
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Egypt Within the Pyramid of Unis (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353–2323 BCE),
Recitation № 208 states:
«Western gods, eastern gods, southern gods, northern gods! Those four clean reedfloats that you
set for Osiris when he went forth to the sky and crossed to the Cool Waters
with his son Horus at his fingers that he might foster him and have him
appear as the great god in the Cool Waters—set them for Unis.»
(2007AllenJP:56). Additionally, domestic goats with horizontal horns and the fording of a
canal by hornless cows, possibly as a symbol, are depicted in a fresco in the
Mastaba of Ti, dating to the 5th Dynasty (2014AuenmüllerJ;
digital.lib.buffalo.edu).
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25 And Jacob was left alone; and there wrestled a
man with him until the breaking of the day. 26 And when he saw that he could
not prevail against him, he struck against the hollow of his thigh ; and the
hollow of Jacob's thigh was put out of joint, as he was wrestling with him.
27 And he said, Let me go, for the day hath dawned. And he said, I will not
let thee go until thou hast blessed me. 28 And he said unto him. What is thy
name? and he said, Jacob. 29 And he said, Not Jacob shall any more be called thy
name, but Israel; for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and
hast prevailed. 30 And Jacob asked him, and said. Tell me, I pray thee, thy
name. And he said, Wherefore is it that thou dost ask after my name? And he
blessed him there.
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Mythological and Psychophysiological
Parallelism of Initiation The pre-dawn
battle and the overcoming of a crisis moment in the final hour of the night
lead to triumph, ontological transformation, and the attainment of a new
status. |
Egypt During the nocturnal Great Journey of the Solar Barque at night, the
final pre-dawn hour arrives — «the hour of the terrible battle of Ra with his
eternal enemy, the serpent Apophis. Apophis lies in wait for the Barque every
night, as stated in the ''Book of Gates'' and the ''Book of Day and Night''»
(2007РакИ:84). It is noted that «The image of
a giant serpent embodying the forces of evil was formed by the beginning of
the Old Kingdom... In the Middle Kingdom, the concept of an underground
afterlife world already takes shape... Apophis becomes an inhabitant of the
subterranean Nile» (2007РакИ:81). Furthermore, according to the
book «Amduat» — «The Book of That Which Is in the Underworld», during Ra's
journey through the netherworld, «the main action unfolds one hour before
sunrise, for by the hour of dawn, all evil must be destroyed» (2007РакИ:90). |
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25 And Jacob was left alone; and there wrestled a
man with him until the breaking of the day. 26 And when he saw that he could
not prevail against him, he struck against the hollow of his thigh ; and the
hollow of Jacob's thigh was put out of joint, as he was wrestling with him.
27 And he said, Let me go, for the day hath dawned. And he said, I will not
let thee go until thou hast blessed me. 28 And he said unto him. What is thy
name? and he said, Jacob. 29 And he said, Not Jacob shall any more be called thy
name, but Israel; for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and
hast prevailed. 30 And Jacob asked him, and said. Tell me, I pray thee, thy
name. And he said, Wherefore is it that thou dost ask after my name? And he
blessed him there.
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Oneiric Prognostics The similarity in
the consideration of dreams as a legitimate channel of communication with the
deity, and the transformation of dreams into a mandatory scenario for
execution. The physiological cause of dreams may involve brain dysfunction resulting
from trauma, illness, episodic hypoxia, prolonged sleep deprivation, or an
extreme degree of physical and mental fatigue.
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Egypt Historically, as the Egyptians believed, «The gods also communicated
their will to people in dreams» (2021МюллерМ:208). For
instance, the «Famine Stela» testifies that during a period of social
distress, Pharaoh Djoser (3rd Dynasty) ordered immediate sacrifices to be
brought to Khnum (2004РакИВ:158). This
inscription, though apparently
made during the Ptolemaic era, records the Egyptians' attentive attitude
toward dreams. In the «Tale of the Eloquent Peasant» (Middle Kingdom) there
are the words: «It is the sleeper who sees the dream;»
(2006LichtheimM:1.178). The «Prophecies of Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I,
12th Dynasty) also contain
an indication of a prophetic dream: «Risen as god, hear what I tell you, That
you may rule the land, govern the shores, Increase well-being!»
(2006LichtheimM:1.136). In a
comparable manner, the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom) recounts a
vision: «Lo, this flight which the servant made-I did not plan it. It was not
in my heart; I did not devise it. I do not know what removed me from my
place. It was like a dream. As if a Delta-man saw himself in Yebu, a
marsh-man in Nubia.» (2006LichtheimM:1.230–231). Moreover, the «Instruction Addressed to King Merikare» (Middle
Kingdom) speaks of a god who devised magic and rituals: «He made for them
rulers in the egg, Leaders to raise the back of the weak. He made for them
magic as weapons To ward off the blow of events, Guarding them by day and by
night.» (2006LichtheimM:1.106). In Egypt, since the 12th Dynasty, the staff
of the «Houses of Life» (Pr-ʿnḫ), where magic, medicine, and divination were
studied, were engaged in compiling manuals that systematically recorded
correspondences between dreams and the events they foretold (1951GarnotJSF).
The Egyptians had specialists in dream interpretation, and Diodorus reported
that above the library of the Ramesseum there was an inscription: «The Place
of Healing for the Soul» (1972El-AssalG). Additionally, the «Papyrus Chester Beatty III» (BM
10683) contains the so-called «Dream Book», possibly dating back to the 12th
Dynasty, which provides interpretations of dreams (1935GardinerAH:9). Finally, the «Edwin Smith
Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), specifically in Cases № 7 and 8, describes cerebral
dysfunction resulting from cranial trauma (1930BreastedJH:175,201; sae.saw-leipzig.de).
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25 And Jacob was left alone; and there wrestled a
man with him until the breaking of the day. 26 And when he saw that he could
not prevail against him, he struck against the hollow of his thigh ; and the
hollow of Jacob's thigh was put out of joint, as he was wrestling with him.
27 And he said, Let me go, for the day hath dawned. And he said, I will not
let thee go until thou hast blessed me. 28 And he said unto him. What is thy
name? and he said, Jacob. 29 And he said, Not Jacob shall any more be called thy
name, but Israel; for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and
hast prevailed. 30 And Jacob asked him, and said. Tell me, I pray thee, thy
name. And he said, Wherefore is it that thou dost ask after my name? And he
blessed him there.
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Structural-Liturgical
Parallelism The motif of a
night confrontation with a divine power, culminating in a demand for a
blessing and a change of status, reflects the general ritual model of the «test
of the chosen one», where physical struggle serves as a necessary condition
for the transition to a new quality. |
Hittite Kingdom In a Hittite ritual text, a similar confrontation is
depicted between the goddess Hebat and a king, «who detains her until they
begin to argue over who has overcome whom; the dispute ends with the king's
request for a blessing» (2003УолтонДХ_ЧавалесМУ). Furthermore, linguists
have noted that the Hittite and biblical narratives exhibit a striking
identity of structure and similarity of content. This suggests an extremely low probability that the
multitude of identical elements and their sequence is a result of chance. However, it should be noted that the meaning
of the Hittite inscription appears as an isolated event integrated into a
ritual, whereas in the Book of Genesis, the episode is embedded into the
ongoing history of the Patriarchs and constitutes a part of this history
(1983TsevatM). |
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25 And Jacob was left alone; and there wrestled a man
with him until the breaking of the day. 26 And when he saw that he could not
prevail against him, he struck against the hollow of his thigh ; and the
hollow of Jacob's thigh was put out of joint, as he was wrestling with him.
27 And he said, Let me go, for the day hath dawned. And he said, I will not
let thee go until thou hast blessed me. 28 And he said unto him. What is thy
name? and he said, Jacob. 29 And he said, Not Jacob shall any more be called
thy name, but Israel; for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men,
and hast prevailed. 30 And Jacob asked him, and said. Tell me, I pray thee,
thy name. And he said, Wherefore is it that thou dost ask after my name? And he
blessed him there.
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Single Combat in
a Dream The plot of a
night battle with a supernatural being in human form reproduces the tradition
of prophetic dreams, where physical contact with an otherworldly power serves
as a harbinger of a radical change in the hero's fate. The physiological
cause of dreams may be brain dysfunction resulting from both illness and an
extreme degree of psychophysical exhaustion. |
Mesopotamia IAs
recorded in the Akkadian «Epic of Gilgamesh», we read: «Enkidu's
innards were churning, lying there so alone. He spoke everything he felt,
saying to his friend: "Listen, my friend, to the dream that I had last
night. The heavens cried out and the earth replied, and I was standing
between them. There appeared a man of dark visage - his face resembled the
Anzu, his hands were the paws of a lion, his nails the talons of an eagle! -
he seized me by my hair and overpowered me. I struck him a blow, but he
skipped about like a jump rope, and then he struck me and capsized me like a
raft, and trampled on me like a wild bull. He encircled my whole body in a
clamp. ''Help me, my friend!'' (I cried), but you did not rescue me, you were
afraid and did not ...» (1989KovacsMG:64). The standard version of the «Epic
of Gilgamesh» was first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600 BCE)
(1989KovacsMG:xxii). Moreover,
the earliest evidence of the practice of collecting dreams in
Mesopotamia dates back to the Old Babylonian period, specifically between
2003 and 1595 BCE (2006NoegelSB). In a
similar context, in a letter (ARM 26/1 225) from an unknown
correspondent found in the Mari archives, the text reads: «My Lord wrote to
me the following words: "A dream that I have dreamt has troubled me".
<…> Having received the message from my Lord, I summoned the diviners
with the following inquiry: "My Lord has sent me an urgent
communication; what is your counsel?" After I posed this question to
them, they provided their response in these words…» (1988CharpinD:466, archibab.fr). Additionally, in the Mari archives, a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) from
Yasim-El to his brother Shunukhra-Khalu has been preserved, in which he
recounts what was apparently an infectious illness: «Since the beginning of
the year, I have been suffering from a severe illness, and two of my Lord's
servants have died. Now my illness is progressing. Therefore, because of this
illness, I have repeatedly consulted a diviner.» (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian
source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
|
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26 And when he saw that he could not prevail against
him, he struck against the hollow of his thigh ; and the hollow of Jacob's
thigh was put out of joint, as he was wrestling with him. |
Anatomical-Clinical
Parallelism The earliest
mentions of joints in general, and the hip joint in particular, as well as
the understanding of the possibility of bone dislocation within a joint long
before the works of Hippocrates (5th–4th cent. BCE).
|
Egypt Regarding Egyptian
funerary texts, the Pyramid of Pepi I
(6th Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE), Recitation № 294, contains a reference to the leg joints: «Raise
yourself, Meryre! You have received your water, your joints have been
collected for you. So, stand up on your legs, akh at the fore of the akhs.»
(2007AllenJP:119). Furthermore,
the region of the hip joint, though not the
articulation itself, is mentioned in utterance № 761 from the «Coffin Texts»
collection (ca. 2134–2040 BCE): «your back is Anubis, your belly is the
Double Lion, your arms are the two sons of Horus, jape and Imsety, your
fingers and your finger-nails are the Children of Horus, I your back is the
Extender of the Sunshine, your legs are Anubis, your buttocks are Isis and
Nephthys,» (1978FaulknerRO:293). Although the translator utilized
the English term «legs» to denote the «hips», based on the context, this
refers more precisely to the area of the hip joints (1993WalkerJH:77). In addition, in Case № 1 of the «Ramesseum V»
papyrus, written during the 12th Dynasty, the knee joint is mentioned
(sae.saw-leipzig.de). Knee joints are also cited in Cases № 2, 31, and 44 of
the «Ramesseum III» papyrus, composed no later than the 13th Dynasty (sae.saw-leipzig.de). Regarding medical
practices, in Case № 48 of the
«Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), the physician asks the patient, lying
on his back, to pull up—that is, to bend his legs at the joints
(1930BreastedJH:425; sae.saw-leipzig.de). To denote the leg joints, which are to be first
bent and then extended, the hieroglyph wꜥrt is used. Notably, the hieroglyph «wꜥrt» may signify «the hip joint itself or the
anatomical region surrounding the joint» (1993WalkerJH:79). In the upper part
of the limb, flexion and extension are possible only at the hip joint. Consequently, this is
intuitively understood in a diagnostic request: «please flex / rotate /
abduct / extend the hip». Finally, the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» describes the clinical
presentation of dislocations in certain joints. Specifically, Case № 25 discusses the dislocation of
the mandible [lower jaw], while Case № 31 implies subluxation or dislocation
of a cervical vertebra. Lastly, Case
№ 34 describes the dislocation of the acromial end of both clavicles
(1930BreastedJH:303,323,342; sae.saw-leipzig.de). See note!
|
|
28 And he said unto him. What is thy name? and he
said, Jacob. 29 And he said, Not Jacob shall any more be called thy name, but
Israel; for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and hast
prevailed. |
Protective Names
in Magic A similarity in
the concept that changing or concealing a name radically increases protection
against external forces, which may be a symptom of a self-identification
disorder. |
Egypt According to the «Book of Gates» and the «Book of
Day and Night», in the pre-dawn hour in the Duat, the struggle of the Barque
of Eternity's crew concludes: «Under the leadership of Ra, the gods of his
retinue achieve victory over Apophis» (2007РакИ:85). From our perspective,
by devising a new and
previously unknown name for his spouse, the protagonist primarily intended to
ensure her safety in accordance with Egyptian myth. Similarly, the god Ra,
concerned for his own safety, «disclosed his Ren [name] to Isis alone, not
aloud but from heart to heart, so that no one else would learn this name and
gain power over the great god» (2004РакИВ:134).
|
|
29 And he said, Not Jacob shall any more be called
thy name, but Israel; for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men,
and hast prevailed. |
Onomastic Authenticity
The identified
structural similarity in the use of the theophoric element «El» confirms that
the biblical text belongs to the authentic Near Eastern naming tradition of
the early 2nd millennium BCE.
|
Mesopotamia The theophoric element «El» in personal names is frequently
encountered in the documents of the Mari archives. An example is a letter
(ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). Furthermore, in a letter (ARM
26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Hanaean» is
mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Additionally,
Yeskit-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of
the fall of Larsa (1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2
403-bis) to his brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The
Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
|
|
30 And Jacob asked him, and said. Tell me, I pray
thee, thy name. And he said, Wherefore is it that thou dost ask after my
name? And he blessed him there. |
Onomastic Taboo
and Sacral Power A shared
tradition according to which knowledge of a deity's true name grants magical
power over them, making the concealment of the name a necessary condition for
maintaining divine sovereignty.
|
Egypt In the mythological
narrative «Ra and the
Serpent», Isis said to Ra: «Tell me your name, O my divine father! For a man
lives who has uttered his name» (1940МатьеМВ:73). Alternatively,
«Isis requested of Ra: «O divine father, name your name to me» (2009БаджЭАУ:46). In
another version, «The Secret Name of the God Ra», Ra, concerned for
his safety, «disclosed his Ren [name] to Isis alone, and not aloud, but from
heart to heart—so that no one else might know this name and gain power over
the great god» (2004РакИВ:134).
|
|
31 And Jacob called the name of the place Peniel :
for I have seen an angel of God face to face, and my life hath been
preserved. |
Direct Visual Contact
with the Deity A description of
the moment of ultimate proximity between a human and a sacred essence; the
event is equated to a sacred dream or vision, after which the hero's life
attains a new status and divine protection. |
Egypt Within the Pyramid of Unis (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353–2323 BCE),
Recitation № 3 states:
«Face has fallen on face, face has seen face.» (2007AllenJP:17). As the Egyptians believed, «The
gods also communicated their will to people in dreams» (2021МюллерМ:208). For
instance, the «Famine Stela» testifies that during a period of social
distress, Pharaoh Djoser (3rd Dynasty) ordered immediate sacrifices to be
brought to Khnum (2004РакИВ:158). This
inscription, though apparently
made during the Ptolemaic era, records the Egyptians' attentive attitude
toward dreams. Moreover, in the «Tale of the Eloquent Peasant» (Middle Kingdom)
there are the words: «It is the sleeper who sees the dream;»
(2006LichtheimM:1.178). Similarly,
the «Prophecies of Neferti» (reign of Amenemhet I, 12th Dynasty) contain
an indication of a prophetic dream: «Risen as god, hear what I tell you, That
you may rule the land, govern the shores, Increase well-being!»
(2006LichtheimM:1.136). Furthermore, the «Story of
Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom) recounts a vision: «Lo, this flight which the
servant made-I did not plan it. It was not in my heart; I did not devise it.
I do not know what removed me from my place. It was like a dream. As if a
Delta-man saw himself in Yebu, a marsh-man in Nubia.» (2006LichtheimM:1.230–231).
Additionally, the «Instruction Addressed to King Merikare» (Middle
Kingdom) speaks of a god who devised magic and rituals: «He made for them
rulers in the egg, Leaders to raise the back of the weak. He made for them
magic as weapons To ward off the blow of events, Guarding them by day and by
night.» (2006LichtheimM:1.106). In terms of
professional practice, since the 12th Dynasty, the staff of the «Houses of Life» (Pr-ʿnḫ), where magic,
medicine, and divination were studied, were engaged in compiling manuals that
systematically recorded correspondences between dreams and the events they
foretold (1951GarnotJSF). Notably,
the Egyptians had specialists in dream interpretation, and Diodorus
reported that above the library of the Ramesseum there was an inscription:
«The Place of Healing for the Soul» (1972El-AssalG). Finally, the «Papyrus Chester Beatty III» (BM 10683)
contains the so-called «Dream Book», possibly dating back to the 12th
Dynasty, which provides interpretations of dreams (1935GardinerAH:9).
|
|
32 And the sun rose unto him as he passed by Penuel,
and he halted upon his thigh. |
Heliocentric Soteriological
Isomorphism A shared
mythological canon concerning the triumphant conclusion of a nocturnal
battle. |
Egypt According to the «Book of Gates» and the «Book of
Day and Night», it is described
that «Having triumphed over Apophis, the gods rejoice: ...Arise, O Ra,
in your sanctuary!» Then the night Barque, Mesektet, sails into the sky, and «The
Doors of the Horizon are flung open, Ra bathes his body in the waters of the
sacred lake and, amidst the jubilation of the gods, passes into the day
Barque, Mandjet» (2007РакИ:85–86).
|
|
32 And the sun rose unto him as he passed by Penuel,
and he halted upon his thigh. |
Visual Diagnostics The hero's
physical defect manifests as an impairment of the walking stereotype (lameness),
serving as objective evidence of pathological changes in the hip joint. |
Egypt In the literary work «Eloquent Peasant» (Middle
Kingdom), there are words implying the author's knowledge of gait impairment,
yet the term denoting the symptom is used allegorically: «honesty is limping»
(1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ:48). Furthermore, in the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), specifically
in Case № 8, lameness is described, but in connection with a cranial injury
(1930BreastedJH:201; sae.saw-leipzig.de). Notably,
lameness is typically caused by pain. In a similar medical context, Case № 7 of the «Kahun
Gynaecological Papyrus», written around 1825 BCE, makes mention is made of pain in the legs after
walking (2021LopesHT_PereiraRGG; intechopen.com).
|
|
32 And the sun rose unto him as he passed by Penuel,
and he halted upon his thigh. |
Anatomical Lexical
Universal Similarity in the
mention of the «thigh» as a specific anatomical region and the correspondence
in levels of terminological precision. |
Egypt In the text of Utterances № 273–274 of the «Pyramid
Texts», dating to 2350–2175 BCE, there is a reference to the thighs: «The
Great Ones in the northern sky light him fire For the kettles' contents with
the old ones' thighs, For the sky-dwellers serve Unas, And the pots are
scraped for him with their women's legs.» (2006LichtheimM:1.37). The same section of the «Pyramid
Texts» (2350–2175 BCE),
specifically Utterance № 273–274 (405a-b), states: «"The Great Ones in the north side of
heaven" who lay for him the fire to the kettles containing them, with
the thighs of their eldest (as fuel)» (1952MercerSAB:450). Additionally, in the Pyramid of Pepi I (6th Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE),
Recitation № 517 records: «Pepi
is just before this isle of earth, To which he has swum, to which he has
come, Which is between the thighs of Nut!» (2006LichtheimM:1.48). Similarly, the «Pyramid Texts» (2350–2175
BCE) in Utterance № 517 (1188d-f)
read: «N. is just before this isle of the earth, to which he has been
swimming, and has arrived there, and which is between the two thighs of Nut.»
(1952MercerSAB:312).
|
|
33 Therefore do the children of Israel not eat the
sinew which shrank, which is upon the hollow of the thigh, unto this day;
because he struck against the hollow of Jacob's thigh on the sinew that
shrank.
|
Clinical-Anatomical
Parallelism Consistency in
the knowledge of articular ligaments and in the description of their damage
during joint dislocations reveals an identical level of understanding
regarding the pathomorphology of specific joint injuries. |
Egypt As recorded in the Pyramid of Pepi I (6th Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE)
Recitation № 294 contains a reference to the leg joints: «Raise yourself,
Meryre! You have received your water, your joints have been collected for
you. So, stand up on your legs, akh at the fore of the akhs.» (2007AllenJP:119). Furthermore, in the «Pyramid Texts», Utterance № 688 concerns the
construction of a ladder to heaven to the god Hapi. The inscription was
placed on a tomb wall between 2350–2175 BCE. A fragment (2080a-c) states:
«Its rungs are hewn by Šśȝ; the ropes which are on it are made solid by means
of sinews of Gȝśw.ti, the bull of heaven;» (1952MercerSAB:499–500). However, it should be noted that the
archaic noun «w’t» in this instance, in its plural form, denotes flexible
tendons. Notably, the
biblical verse refers to the ligament of the head of the femur, which
normally measures 20–25 mm in length. In general, ligaments in general are small anatomical
structures from which it is practically impossible to weave ropes. In addition, in Spell № 478 from the «Coffin Texts» (ca. 2134–2040
BCE), the tendons or ligaments of Horus—the mythical counterpart of man—are
mentioned: «the sinews of Horus» (1977FaulknerRO:121). Similarly, in Spell № 397 from
the «Coffin Texts» corpus, the ligaments or tendons of a god, presumably
Seth, are discussed: «They are the sinews of him of whom all these are
afraid.» (1977FaulknerRO:25). Likewise,
Spell № 473 of the «Coffin Texts» states: «Because I know the name of
its ropes; they are the sinews of Atum.» (1977FaulknerRO:108). Moreover, in Spell № 850 of the
«Coffin Texts», there are words concerning the surgical treatment of injuries
to either tendons or ligaments: «Nut has come so that she may join your bones
together, knit up your sinews, make your members firm, take away your corruption
and take hold of your hand, so that you may live in your name of 'Living
One'. May you live for ever!» (1978FaulknerRO:34). In this case, ligaments
are more likely implied, as it is these structures that directly connect
bones. Regarding medical documentation,
in the «Edwin Smith
Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), specifically in Case № 48, the physician asks the
patient, lying on his back, to pull up—that is, to flex the legs at the
joints (1930BreastedJH:425; sae.saw-leipzig.de). To denote the joints that should first be flexed
and then extended, the hieroglyph wꜥrt is used. Significantly, the hieroglyph «wꜥrt» may signify «the hip joint itself or the
anatomical region surrounding the joint» (1993WalkerJH:79). Physiologically, in the upper
part, the leg can be flexed and extended only at the hip joint. For instance, this is
intuitively understood in a diagnostician’s requests: «please flex / rotate /
abduct / extend the hip». Additionally,
in Case № 7 of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus», a ligament of the lower jaw
is described (lig. sphenomandibulare or lig. stylomandibulare), or possibly a
muscle (m. masseter or m. temporalis), while in Case № 30, injury to the
ligaments between the cervical vertebrae is implied (1930BreastedJH:175; sae.saw-leipzig.de).
|
|
33 Therefore do the children of Israel not eat the
sinew which shrank, which is upon the hollow of the thigh, unto this day;
because he struck against the hollow of Jacob's thigh on the sinew that
shrank.
|
Anatomical-Clinical
Parallelism The mention of
the ligament of the head of the femur reveals an identical level of
anatomical knowledge, while the report of its injury significantly predates
the appearance of analogous information in Ancient medicine, where the first
description of this structure in medical texts chronologically coincides only
with the period of the final formation of the Biblical canon. |
Mesopotamia From an anatomical
perspective, the verse refers to
an injury to the ligament of the head of the human femur, which in Latin is
commonly designated as «ligamentum teres» (1923PreussJ:70; 2004PreussJ:63;
2020ArkhipovSV_ProlyginaIV:537). Furthermore, on an Akkadian clay tablet BM 29663, dating to the Old
Babylonian period (2000–1600 BCE), there is an apparent mention of a «sinew»
— that is, the ligament of a sheep's hip joint (2018CohenY:135). Although, much like in certain
versions of the Torah, the translator of the tablet text allows for the
reading «sciatic nerve», structure
is nonetheless unrelated to the joint itself. Meanwhile, commentators
with medical backgrounds, specifically Moses Maimonides in «Mishneh Torah»
(8.1), imply an anatomical element located within the joint adjacent to the
femur—namely, the ligament of the head of the femur—and explicitly distinguish it from the nerve
(1851MaimonidesM). See note! |
Ligament of the Head of Femur and
Hip Dislocation
Regarding
the history of orthopedics, what is possibly the first description in medical history of various types of
hip dislocation, their treatment, and consequences is discussed by Hippocrates
of Kos in the treatise «On the Joints» §§ 51–60, and «On the Instruments of
Reduction» [Mochlicon] §§ 20–25 (1886AdamsF:125–136,168–171; 1941Гиппократ:58–67,96–98).
Furthermore,
in the
catalogue of cuneiform tablets apparently compiled by Esagil-kin-apli, the
chief scholar of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (reigned 1067–1046 BCE),
there are medical texts titled: «If a man’s thighs hurt him continually» and
«(If) a man’s thighs hurt him» (2018FinkelIL). From these
titles, itt
may be inferred that these refer to dystrophic pathology of the hip joint. Additionally, a series of tablets
from the same period, known as the «Diagnostic and Prognostic Handbook»,
includes texts mentioning injuries and diseases of the hip joint. For instance,
continuous pain in the thighs at normal and elevated body temperatures is
discussed in cuneiform tablet «DPS 11», while pain specifically in the hip
joint is mentioned in the text of tablet «DPS 13». Moreover, the text of tablet
«DPS 14» enumerates external signs of hip joint pathology: skin discoloration
in the area (red, dark red, yellow, black), as well as subcutaneous
hemorrhages, tissue edema, the presence of a wound penetrating the joint, and muscle
weakness in this region (2014ScurlockJoA). In a similar vein, a diagnostic
diviner in Nineveh possibly encountered pain in the hip region, or more
precisely, in the upper thigh, as recounted in the text of the divinatory
cuneiform tablet «K 3743», compiled circa 911–612 BCE (1951LabatR). Belonging
to the same period is clay tablet «AMT 56,1», found in Nineveh, which bears a
prescription «for stiffness in the thighs and groin» (2010GellerMJ).
Turning to Egyptian sources, in the
«Ebers Papyrus», various channels designated as «mt» appear, which transport
blood, water, air, and semen. These channels are located in the limbs and body
cavities. It is noted that certain elements termed «mt» may be ligaments or
nerves, though precise differentiation is not feasible. Nevertheless, the
«Ebers Papyrus» contains a list of remedies for treating either tendons,
vessels, or ligaments, including prescription № 634 «to provide flexibility to
the knee» (1889EbersG; sae.saw-leipzig.de). Notably,
it is established that contracture of this
joint may be caused by pathology of the ligaments, joint capsule, and muscles.
One
of the earliest accounts of hip joint ligament damage during an acetabular fracture dates
approximately to the eighth century BCE and is recorded in Homer’s «Iliad»: V. 302–310, where it is stated: «But the
son of Tydeus grasped in his hand a stone — a mighty deed — one that not two
men could bear, such as mortals now are; yet lightly did he wield it even
alone. Therewith he smote Aeneas on the hip, where the thigh turns in the hip
joint, — the cup, men call it — and crushed the cup-bone, and broke furthermore
both sinews, and the jagged stone tore the skin away. Then the warrior fell
upon his knees, and thus abode, and with his stout hand leaned he upon the
earth; and dark night enfolded his eyes.» (Trans. A.T. Murray; original source 1924Homer:217).
However,
the first
reliable description of the ligament of the head of human femur is contained in
§ 1 of the treatise «On the Instruments of Reduction» [Mochlicon] by
Hippocrates of Kos (born ca. 460 BCE) (1886AdamsF:162; 1941Гиппократ:89).
As
documented in the «Mishneh
Torah» (ca. 1176 – ca. 1178) (Forbidden Foods 8.1), we read: «[The prohibition
against partaking of] the gid hanesheh applies with regard to kosher
domesticated animals and wild beasts, even nevelot and trefot. It
applies to a fetus and to animals that have been consecrated, both those
consecrated [for sacrifices] of which we partake and for sacrifices of which we
do not partake. It applies to [the gid] on the right thigh and that on
the left thigh. According to Scriptural Law, only [the gid] on the hip
socket is forbidden, as [Genesis 32:33] states: "which is on the
hip-socket." The remainder of the gid which is above the socket or
below the socket - and similarly, the fat which is on the gid – are
forbidden only according to Rabbinic decree. There are two giddim. The
inner one next to the bone is forbidden according to Scriptural Law. The entire
outer one is forbidden by Rabbinic decree.» (1986–2007BenMaimonM, sefaria.org). Significantly, this physician's
interpretation supports the identification identification of the anatomical structure as a ligament
located within the joint, specifically the ligamentum teres (ligamentum capitis
femoris), rather than the more superficial sciatic nerve.
Gloss
33 Therefore do the children of
Israel not eat the sinew which shrank, which is upon the hollow of the thigh,
unto this day; because he struck against the hollow of Jacob's thigh on the
sinew that shrank.
These explanations may date back to the first half of the first millennium BCE. The practice of compiling explanatory glosses has deep roots in ancient Egyptian scientific texts. The early explanations date back to the first half of the second millennium BCE. For example, numerous glosses are contained in the Edwin Smith Papyrus (1650–1550 BCE), compiled by a scribe presumably from the Hyksos period (1930BreastedJH; sae.saw-leipzig.de).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 32
Linguistic and Etymological Stratigraphy:
The identified similarity between the biblical toponym Machanayim and Egypto-Akkadian terms (m’hanem’ / ma-ḫa-an) indicates the author's utilization of a lexical stratum characteristic of the Early and Middle Bronze Age. This suggests that the text employs concepts that were current within the Egypto-Mesopotamian sphere long before the formation of the late biblical canon.
Diplomatic and Social Protocol:
The established structural similarity of rhetorical formulas («your servant») with the official protocol of the Mari archives (18th century BCE) confirms the historical authenticity of the narrative. The use of this specific vassal formula in Jacob's address to Esau reflects the actual administrative ethics of the Middle Bronze Age, rendering a late origin for this fragment highly improbable.
Zootechnological and Economic Continuity:
The analysis of livestock mentions within the context of the «Pyramid Texts» and «The Story of Sinuhe» reveals a profound similarity in the description of economic structures. These texts demonstrate an identical level of development in animal husbandry and veterinary skills (such as the raising of oxen as a primary draft resource) characteristic of the Old and Middle Kingdoms of Egypt.
Zootechnological and Legal Continuity:
The established similarity in the description of livestock management between the biblical text and the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BCE) indicates a shared legal and technological environment in the Middle Bronze Age Near East. The presence of specialized veterinary care and castration techniques for oxen in Mesopotamian and Egyptian sources confirms that the description of Jacob’s wealth (Gen. 32:13–15) is based on the highly developed agrarian culture of the 2nd millennium BCE.
Socio-Religious Isomorphism of the «Divine Shepherd»:
The identified similarity between the image of Jacob as a wealthy shepherd-leader and the Egyptian archetype of the «Good Shepherd» (Osiris) or the Mesopotamian Dumuzi points to the use of a deeply rooted archetype of authority. The Coffin Texts and Egyptian didactic literature (such as the «Admonitions of Ipuwer») demonstrate that the status of a shepherd in that era was not merely an occupation but a sacral attribute of leadership, thereby legitimizing Jacob's status within the contemporary context.
Military-Administrative Isomorphism:
The striking similarity in the size of Esau’s detachment (400 men) with the military contingent of the nomarch Amenemhat (era of the Middle Kingdom) serves as a potent chronological marker. In this context, the number 400 functions not as a literary hyperbole, but as a standard tactical unit for regional missions, as recorded in Egyptian administrative practices of the 18th century BCE.
Zooarchaeological Verification:
The identified similarity between the mention of camels in Jacob's property and archaeological artifacts (4th Dynasty models, 6th Dynasty caravan depictions, and 19th-century BCE Sinai inscriptions) refutes the theory of late anachronism. The direct correlation with data regarding the early domestication of these animals in the Egypto-Sinai region confirms the historical authenticity of the text within the 3rd–2nd millennia BCE.
Ethical-Chronological Divergence:
The established ethical similarity between «The Story of Sinuhe» and Jacob's prayer (awe and distance before the deity) indicates that the text belongs to the Middle Kingdom era. The profound piety and «spiritual distance» contrast sharply with the «caricatured» portrayal of gods in New Kingdom texts (e.g., «The Contendings of Horus and Seth»), rendering the composition of Genesis Chapter 32 in a later period highly improbable.
Iconographic and Mythopoetic Parallelism:
The striking similarity between Jacob's crossing of the Jordan with a staff and the sacred «Coffin Texts» (c. 2134–2040 BCE), where Osiris crosses a water barrier with a rod, points to the use of a shared archetype of power and initiation. This parallel confirms that the staff in Chapter 32 is not merely a household item but a sacral attribute of legal and spiritual capacity characteristic of the Bronze Age.
Sociocultural and Status-Domestic Parallelism:
The identified similarity in the description of the staff as an essential attribute of a free man in Genesis, the Epic of Gilgamesh, and the accounts of Herodotus confirms its status significance. The staff in Chapter 32 functions not merely as a support but as a legal and social marker of dignity, fully consistent with the legal and domestic norms of the Mesopotamian sphere during the 2nd–1st millennia BCE.
Topographic Authenticity:
The established spatial similarity between the biblical route and the physical geography of the Levant (the Jordan basin, the mountains of Gilead and Abarim) demonstrates the deep rootedness of the text in reality. The precision in describing the hydrographic network and mountain ranges confirms that the narrative of Jacob's crossing is based on genuine knowledge of the Palestinian landscape, characteristic of authors personally familiar with the region.
Logistic Realism:
The discovered behavioral similarity in the organization of nocturnal transitions between Jacob’s actions, the experiences of the hero in the Story of Sinuhe (Middle Kingdom), and modern caravan practices underscores the empirical authenticity of the text. The choice of pre-dawn hours for maneuver constitutes a rational adaptation to the Near Eastern climate, indicating that the text of Genesis preserves an authentic caravan protocol of the Bronze Age.
Topographic Authenticity:
The established spatial similarity between the biblical hydronym Jabbok and the actual Nahr ez-Zarqa river confirms the geographic precision of the text. The identification of the Jabbok as the third most significant watercourse in Jordan demonstrates that the description of the crossing is localized within the specific physical-geographic reality of the Levant rather than being an abstract mythologem.
Sacral-Domestic Isomorphism:
The identified similarity between Jacob's domestic fording and the sacral crossing of Osiris (Pyramid Texts, 5th Dynasty) points to the reproduction of the ancient archetype of the «salvific transition.» The fusion of a physical act (the ferrying of family and livestock, as depicted in the Mastaba of Ti) with the mythological significance of preparing for an encounter with the deity is characteristic of the ritual consciousness of the Old and Middle Kingdom eras.
Mythological and Psychophysiological Initiation:
The striking structural similarity between Jacob’s struggle and the pre-dawn battle of Ra against Apophis (Book of Gates, Amduat) serves as a key chronological and thematic marker. The motif of a decisive struggle during the final hour of the night, followed by the destruction of evil and the triumph of light (dawn), fully aligns with the Egyptian initiatory canon of the Middle Kingdom, where victory in the pre-dawn hour leads to the hero's ontological transformation.
Oneiric Prognostics and Neuro-Physiological Realism:
The identified similarity in the perception of dreams as a legitimate channel of communication with the deity in Genesis and the Egyptian tradition of the Middle Kingdom (The Story of Sinuhe, The Instruction Addressed to King Merikare) confirms the ancient status of the oneiric experience. Of particular significance is the correlation between the mystical vision and the hero’s psychophysical state: references to the «Houses of Life» and the Edwin Smith Papyrus indicate that during this era, the connection between borderline states of consciousness and physiological factors (exhaustion, trauma) was already recognized. This renders the description of Jacob’s struggle not merely a metaphor, but a clinically plausible account of an initiatory experience under conditions of extreme fatigue.
Structural-Liturgical Parallelism:
The striking structural similarity between Jacob’s struggle and the Hittite ritual text concerning the confrontation between a king and the goddess Hebat points to a regional model of the «test of the chosen one.» The identity of elements—detaining the deity, the dispute over dominance, and the concluding blessing—precludes chance coincidence. This demonstrates that the author of Genesis integrated a living ritual tradition of the Bronze Age into the history of the Patriarchs, transforming an isolated rite into a pivotal moment of national history.
Single Combat in a Dream and Neuro-Physiological Crisis:
The identified similarity between Jacob's nocturnal struggle and Enkidu's vision in the Epic of Gilgamesh (18th–16th centuries BCE) points to a shared literary and cultural tradition of depicting prophetic dream-battles. The description of physical contact with a supernatural being, resulting in a radical shift in the hero's fate, is accompanied by signs of a severe psychophysical crisis. Given the context of extreme exhaustion and potential fever (similar to Enkidu's delirious state caused by typhoid fever?), the biblical account of the struggle appears as a realistic recording of a pathophysiological state in which borderline consciousness interprets the body's internal struggle as physical combat.
Anatomical-Clinical Parallelism:
The established similarity in the understanding of joint structure and the mechanisms of their injury between Genesis and Egyptian medicine (Old and Middle Kingdom eras) pushes the origins of this knowledge centuries earlier than the era of Hippocrates. The use of the hieroglyph wꜥrt to denote the hip joint in the Edwin Smith Papyrus and the descriptions of various joint dislocations prove that the injury to the «hollow of the thigh» (Gen. 32:25) relies on a specific clinical foundation of the Bronze Age. This confirms that the author of the text possessed anatomical knowledge at the level of Egyptian physicians of the 18th–16th centuries BCE.
Protective Names and Onomastic Taboos:
The identified similarity between the changing of Jacob's name and Egyptian magical concepts (Ren) indicates the utilization of an ancient mechanism of sacral protection. The concealment of a true name by a deity and the attainment of a new name by the hero in Genesis fully align with the Egyptian tradition of the Old and Middle Kingdom eras, where knowledge of a name was equated to possessing power over its bearer. The mysterious adversary's refusal to disclose his name (Gen. 32:29) is not merely a literary device but a strict adherence to the onomastic taboo characteristic of 2nd-millennium BCE theology.
Onomastic Authenticity and Sacral Power:
The established structural similarity in the use of the theophoric element 'El' in the name «Israel» and in personal names from the Mari archives (18th century BCE)—such as Yakhsib-El or Yasim-El—confirms the anthroponymic precision of the text. This proves that the hero's renaming fits into the living linguistic and religious tradition of the Northwest Semites of the Middle Bronze Age, where appealing to «El» for protection and status was a universal practice.
Protective Names and Self-Identification:
The identified similarity between Jacob's name change and the Egyptian magical concept of Ren (concealing the true name for protection) underscores the author's utilization of ancient psycho-mystical mechanisms. The tradition of «transferring a name from heart to heart,» recorded in the myths of Ra, reflects the belief that knowledge of a name grants power over one's essence. Within the context of Genesis, renaming serves as a tool for ontological transformation and the ensurance of the hero's safety within the Middle Kingdom tradition.
Direct Visual Contact and Sacred Visions:
The established structural and thematic similarity between Jacob's exclamation at Penuel («I have seen God face to face») and Egyptian liturgical texts («face has fallen on face, face has seen face») indicates an identity of theophanic formulas. The use of the oneiric channel as a legitimate means of communication with the deity—characteristic of the 12th Dynasty and The Story of Sinuhe—confirms that visual contact with the sacred in Chapter 32 is described according to the canons of sacred visions of the Middle Bronze Age.
Heliocentric Soteriological Isomorphism:
The identified structural similarity between the conclusion of Jacob's struggle and the Egyptian soteriological canon (Book of Gates, Book of Day and Night) points to the utilization of the «dawn triumph» archetype. The moment Jacob crosses the Jabbok and the «sun rose upon him» (Gen. 32:31) precisely reproduces the liturgical model of Ra's victory over Apophis during the final pre-dawn hour. This suggests that the author of the text codified spiritual victory through the universal solar symbols of the Middle Kingdom era.
Visual Diagnostics and Pathomorphology:
The established clinical similarity in the description of Jacob’s lameness with the medical observations found in Egyptian papyri (19th–17th centuries BCE) confirms the empirical authenticity of the text. The mention of «limping upon his thigh» as a consequence of joint injury aligns with the diagnostic level recorded in the Edwin Smith and Kahun papyri, where gait impairment is treated as an objective symptom of physical pathology rather than a mere metaphor.
Anatomical Lexical Universal:
The identified similarity in the use of the term «thigh» as a specific anatomical landmark in Genesis and the Pyramid Texts (2350–2175 BCE) indicates an ancient lexical continuity. The precision of localization (e.g., the region between the thighs of Nut) corresponds to the level of terminological certainty characteristic of Egyptian sacral and domestic vocabulary during the Old and Middle Kingdom eras.
Clinical-Anatomical Parallelism:
The striking similarity in the description of ligamentous damage during joint dislocations between the biblical text and Egyptian medical papyri (19th–16th centuries BCE) demonstrates an identical level of understanding of pathomorphology. The mention of «tendons/ligaments» (w’t) in the Coffin Texts and surgical maneuvers in the Edwin Smith Papyrus (Cases № 7, 30, 48) confirms that the account of Jacob’s injury (Gen. 32:25, 32) is based on an actual understanding of the function of the ligamentous apparatus connecting bones within joints—knowledge available only to the high medical elite of the Middle Bronze Age.
Anatomical-Clinical Parallelism (Ligamentum Teres):
The established profound similarity in the understanding of the hip joint structure between the text of Genesis and Akkadian medical tablets of the Old Babylonian period (2000–1600 BCE) demonstrates the existence of specific knowledge regarding joint pathomorphology during the Bronze Age. The mention of injury to the ligament of the head of the femur (ligamentum teres) in the biblical text reveals an identical level of anatomical precision to the data on cuneiform tablet BM 29663. This knowledge, later confirmed by Maimonides, predates classical Ancient medicine by centuries, proving that the account of Jacob’s injury relies on an authentic Near Eastern clinical tradition of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Erosion of Terminological Precision
During the Middle Bronze Age (e.g., the Edwin Smith Papyrus, Tablet BM 29663), a peak of anatomical differentiation is observed: physicians clearly distinguished between ligaments. In later texts, such as the Ebers Papyrus or the Babylonian catalogues of Esagil-kin-apli (11th century BCE), a «blurring» of concepts occurs. The term mt or the general designation for «sinew» began to encompass vessels, nerves, tendons, and ligaments simultaneously. This indicates a transition from rigorous surgical anatomy to a more generalized, symptomatic approach to medicine.
From Clinical Practice to Divination and Epic
The evidence suggests that by the early 1st millennium BCE (e.g., Tablet K 3743 from Nineveh), knowledge of the hip joint shifted from the realm of pure medicine into prognostics and divination. The profound understanding of pathomorphology (as seen in the case of the ligamentum teres) was preserved only within canonical text (Genesis).
The Homeric «Bridge»
The citation from the Iliad (8th century BCE) serves as a critical evidentiary link. The description of Aeneas’s injury («crushed the cup-bone, broke sinews) is strikingly similar to the biblical account. This proves that knowledge of the critical role of ligaments within the hip joint did not vanish entirely; rather, it moved into the category of «field-military experience,» which was only rediscovered and scientifically systematized by Hippocrates in the 5th century BCE.
General Conclusion:
A comprehensive multidisciplinary comparison of Genesis Chapter 32 with authentic sources from Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Hittite Kingdom allows for the definitive attribution of the narrative's formation and recording to the Middle Bronze Age (c. 20th–16th centuries BCE). The study has identified an unprecedented level of isomorphism across several critical domains:
Linguistics and Onomastics: The use of an archaic lexical stratum (Machanayim, w’t) and anthroponyms featuring the theophoric element «El»—identical to names found in the Mari archives (18th century BCE)—effectively refutes theories of late compilation.
Diplomatic and Sociocultural Context: Rhetorical formulas («your servant»), status attributes (the staff as a legal marker), and the size of military contingents (400 men) find direct parallels in the administrative protocols of the Middle Kingdom and Old Babylonian correspondence.
Clinical-Anatomical Precedent: The description of the injury to the ligament of the head of the femur (ligamentum teres) and the understanding of joint dislocation mechanisms demonstrate a level of pathomorphological precision characteristic of Egyptian medicine (Edwin Smith Papyrus) and Mesopotamian veterinary texts of the 2nd millennium BCE. The disappearance of this knowledge from scientific discourse for 1000–1200 years (until the Hippocratic era) classifies the text of Genesis as an informational isolate of the Bronze Age.
Mythopoetics and Psychophysiology: The structure of the pre-dawn struggle and oneiric prognostics (prophetic dreams under conditions of exhaustion) align with the soteriological canon and initiation rituals of the 18th–17th centuries BCE.
Final Verdict:
Genesis Chapter 32 is not a late mythological construct but a high-fidelity record that preserved the actual geography, logistics, legal protocols, and advanced medical knowledge of its time. The established similarity with monuments of the Middle Bronze Age confirms that this narrative constitutes one of the most ancient and authentic documents within the Pentateuch.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 14, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 32. About round ligament of femur. March 14, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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