English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 38
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 38 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 38 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 38 Analysis
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Excerpts from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:47-49)
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Type of
Similarity and Justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels,
Analogies, Similarity, Borrowings, Inversions)
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2 And Judah saw
there a daughter of a certain Canaanite, whose name was Shua ; and he took
her, and went in unto her. |
Ethnopolitical Isomorphism The presence of the term «Canaan»
is characteristic of diplomatic correspondence and legal archives of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants
of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to Askudum (Mari archive, ARM
26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…> awaiting the arrival of the
Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In another letter (ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu
addressed to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305).
The Mari archive, a key
Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Furthermore, according to Na'aman, «It is
thus evident that in mid–18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same area where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398).
Notably, «The earliest
occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the Old Testament is in
the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the middle of the
fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). Additionally, «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu, which
is attested by the documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is
supposed to be a Hurrian word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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6 And Judah took a wife for 'Er his firstborn, whose name was Tamar. 7 And 'Er, Judah's first-born, was displeasing in the eyes of the Lord; and the Lord slew him. 8 And Judah said unto Onan, Go in unto thy brother's wife, and take her, as her brother-in-law, and raise up seed to thy brother. … 11 Then said Judah to Tamar his daughteren-law, Remain a widow at thy father's house, till Shelah my son be grown ; for he thought, Lest peradventure he die also, as his brothers have done. And Tamar went and dwelt in her father's house. … 15 And Judah saw her, and thought her to be a harlot; because she had covered her face. 16 And he turned unto her by the way, and said. Go to, I pray thee, let me come in unto thee ; (for he knew not that she was his daughter-in-law.) And she said. What wilt thou give me, that thou mayest come in unto me? … 25 When she was led forth, she sent to her father-in-law, saying. By the man, whose these are, am I with child : and she said, Acknowledge, I pray thee, to whom belong these, the signet, the scarf, and staff. 26 And Judah acknowledged them, and said, She hath been more righteous than I ; because that I gave her not to Shelah my son. And he knew her not again any more.
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Institutional Levirate Parallelism Both texts describe the legal custom of the levirate, according to
which, in the event of a husband's death, the obligation to continue his
lineage and provide for the widow shifts sequentially to his brothers, or, in
their absence or displacement, to his father. |
Middle East In the context of ancient legal systems, according to the «Hittite
Laws» (17th–12th centuries BCE): «§ 193/79 If a man has a wife, and the man
dies, his brother shall take his widow as wife. (If the brother dies,) his
father shall take her, When afterwards his father dies, his (ie., the
father’s) brother shall take the woman whom he had.» (1997HoffnerJrHA:152).
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8 And Judah said unto Onan, Go in unto thy brother's wife, and take her, as her brother-in-law, and raise up seed to thy brother. 9 Onan thus knew that the seed should not be his ; and it came to pass, when he went in unto his brother's wife, that he spilled it on the ground, so as not to give seed unto his brother. 10 And the thing which he did was displeasing in the eyes of the Lord; wherefore ae slew him also.
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Sacral-Physiological Symbolism of Semen A similar endowment of seminal effusion with the status of a
fundamental event that determines the emergence or termination of the life of
an entire lineage within the framework of the divine world order. |
Egypt The physiological understanding of the significance of semen
for procreation is recorded in the «Pyramid Texts». In Utterance № 475 of the
tomb of Pepi I (6th Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE), we read: «Atum is the one
who came into being as one who came (with penis) extended in Heliopolis. He put
his penis in his fist so that he might make orgasm with it, and the two twins
were born, Shu and Tefnut. the two twins were born, Shu and Tefnut.»
(2007AllenJP:164). |
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12 And many days
had elapsed when the daughter of Shua, Judah's wife, died; and after Judah
was comforted, he went up unto his sheep-shearers, he and his friend Chirah
the Adullamite, to Timnah. … 20 And Judah sent the kid by the hand of his
friend the Adullamite, to take the pledge out of the woman's hand; but he
found her not.
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Toponymic Continuity Historical and archaeological evidence confirms the existence of
Adullam, which has been inhabited since the Chalcolithic period. |
Levant Archaeological findings further illuminate the region's history; A. Eirikh-Rose,
I. Milevski (2008) reported the discovery of late Chalcolithic ceramics (ca.
4000 BCE) at the Tel Adulam site (2023GarfinkelY:258). |
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12 And many days
had elapsed when the daughter of Shua, Judah's wife, died; and after Judah
was comforted, he went up unto his sheep-shearers, he and his friend Chirah
the Adullamite, to Timnah. 13 And it was told unto Tamar, saying. Behold thy
father-in-law goeth up to Timnah to shear his sheep. 14 And she put her widow's
garments off from her, and covered herself with a vail, and concealed her
face, and seated herself at the cross-road, which is by the way to Timnah ;
for she saw that Shelah was grown, and she was not given unto him for wife.
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Geospatial Identity The localization of Timnah as a significant geographical point in the
Levant, inhabited by human populations since the Late Neolithic period. |
Egypt Regarding the geography of the region, in the lists from Soleb and
Amarah (15th century BCE) toponyms related to the «land of Shasu» are found,
among which is «Seir» - a mountainous region east of the Arava (Timna)
(1993RedfordDB:272). The Arabah
Valley is well known as a major source of copper ore in antiquity,
likely beginning in the Late Neolithic. The Timna Valley area in the
southwestern Arabah was the second largest copper deposit (2014AvnerU:103). Notably, in the metallurgical
center of the Timna Valley in the Sinai Desert, small iron ingots were
excavated; these were apparently
produced accidentally during copper smelting 3,000 years before the modern
era (1972RothenbergB; 2000PenseAW).
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15 And Judah saw
her, and thought her to be a harlot; because she had covered her face. … 20
And Judah sent the kid by the hand of his friend the Adullamite, to take the
pledge out of the woman's hand; but he found her not. 21 Then he asked the
men of her place, saying. Where is the harlot, that was at the cross-road on
the highway? And they said, There hath been no harlot m this neighbourhood.
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Social-Status Demareation A common Near Eastern tradition of
clear differentiation between the legal status of a free woman and a harlot, whose role as a professional social
institution was documented in detail in the third millennium BCE.
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Mesopotamia In the Mesopotamian literary tradition, specifically in the Akkadian
«Epic of Gilgamesh», the hero Enkidu, meet the harlot Shamhat, «Turning
around, he sat down at the harlot's feet, gazing into her face, his ears
attentive as the harlot spoke» (1989KovacsMG:9,15). The standard version of
the «Epic of Gilgamesh» was first written in the Old Babylonian period, between 1800–1600 BCE (1989KovacsMG:xxii).
Legal texts from the region also
address similar social contexts. According to the «Hittite Laws»
(17th–12th centuries BCE): «§ 194/80 If a father and a son sleep with the
same female slave or prostitute, it is not an offense.» (1997HoffnerJrHA:153).
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18 And he said,
What is the pledge which I shall give thee? And she said, Thy signet, and thy
scarf, and thy staff that is in thy hand. And he gave them to her, and came
in unto her, and she conceived by him.
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The Borrowing of the Word
«Seal»
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From a linguistic perspective, all West Semitic forms of this term
derive from the Egyptian word for «seal», which has been attested since the
Old Kingdom (2021NoonanBJ:108). |
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18 And he said,
What is the pledge which I shall give thee? And she said, Thy signet, and thy
scarf, and thy staff that is in thy hand. And he gave them to her, and came
in unto her, and she conceived by him. … 25 When she was led forth, she sent
to her father-in-law, saying. By the man, whose these are, am I with child :
and she said, Acknowledge, I pray thee, to whom belong these, the signet, the
scarf, and staff.
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Status-Identification Parallelism Similarity in the combination of the seal and the staff as signs of
personal dignity, identifiers of personality, and indicators of legal
capacity. |
Egypt In the context of Egyptian religious texts, Spell № 728 of the «Coffin
Texts» corpus (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), the receipt of a staff by Osiris, referring to him further down as the
«Great Shepherd» (1977FaulknerRO:277,278). Similarly, Spell № 72
from the same corpus mentions
the staff of Osiris and the crossing of a water barrier: «The gods
come to you bowing, the Morning Star rejoices at you, he brings to you! what
is in the Abyss; you strike with the sceptre and with the staff. You cross
the lake, you traverse the Waterway of the Two Sheep. Do not say: It is I' who say this. It is
Geb and Osiris who say this to you.» (1973FaulknerRO:67). Archaeological evidence also supports
the early use of administrative tools; in the Egyptian Early Dynastic
cemetery at Naga-ed-Deir, more than a dozen cylinder seals made of dark stone
were excavated (1971HalloWW_SimpsonWK).
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18 And he said,
What is the pledge which I shall give thee? And she said, Thy signet, and thy
scarf, and thy staff that is in thy hand. And he gave them to her, and came
in unto her, and she conceived by him. … 25 When she was led forth, she sent
to her father-in-law, saying. By the man, whose these are, am I with child :
and she said, Acknowledge, I pray thee, to whom belong these, the signet, the
scarf, and staff.
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Sociocultural and Status-Domestic Parallelism The mention of the staff as a mandatory attribute of personal status,
legal capacity, and the dignity of a free man of this era.
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Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia, cylinde seals appeared in Uruk approximately after 4400 BCE
(2025KelleyK_FerraraS). Literary
sources also highlight the significance of personal items; in the 12th
tablet of the «Epic of Gilgamesh» (late 3rd millennium BCE), a friend advises
the hero Enkidu: «A staff in your hand you must not carry» (1961ДьяконовИМ:85). The standard version of the «Epic of
Gilgamesh» was first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600 BCE)
(1989KovacsMG:xxii). Centuries
later, Herodotus (5th century BCE) observed that «Every Babylonian possesses a
seal-ring and a staff of exquisite workmanship. On every staff is carved an
apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or something similar» (1972Геродот:195).
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24 And it came to
pass about three months after, that it was told to Judah, saying. Tar mar thy
daughter-in-law hath played the harlot; and also, behold, she is with child
by prostitution. And Judah said. Lead her forth, and let her be burnt.
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Precedential Severity of Punishment Both texts record the capital measure of punishment by burning for
women whose social or sacral status implied strict behavioral restrictions.
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Mesopotamia Legal regulations regarding social conduct were also strict in the
region. According to the Babylonian «Code of Hammurabi», written around 1760
BCE:
Ǥ 110. If a votary, who is not
living in a convent, opens a wine-shop or enters a wine-shop for a drink,
they shall burn that woman.» (1920HandcockPSP:19). See note!
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27 And it came to
pass at the time of her travail, that, behold, twins were in her womb. 28 And
it came to pass, when she travailed, that the one put out his hand : and the
midwife took and bound upon his hand a scarlet thread, saying. This came out
first. 29 And it came to pass, as he drew back his hand, that, behold his
brother came out; and she said. How hast thou broken forth ? this breach is
upon thee : therefore his name was called Perez. 30 And afterward came out
his brother, that had the scarlet thread upon his hand : and his name was
called Zerach.
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Obstetric-Mythological Isomorphism Commonality in motifs concerning the birth of twins, where one child
«bursts through» in defiance of the natural order, manifesting either as
premature labor or as the premature presentation of fetal extremities. |
Egypt The emergence of the first divine twins is narrated in the «Pyramid Texts»
(2350–2175 BCE). Specifically, according to Utterances № 527 (1248d) and №
600 (1652c), Atum spat out (sneezed) Shu and expectorated Tefnut
(1952MercerSAB:325,410). Similarly, in Utterance № 475 of the tomb of Pepi I
(6th Dynasty, ca. 2289–2255 BCE), it is explicitly stated that for Atum «the
two twins were born, Shu and Tefnut.» (2007AllenJP:164). Subsequently, Shu
married his sister Tefnut, an
union also evident from Utterance № 206 of the tomb of Unas (5th
Dynasty, ca. 2353–2323 BCE), where mention is made of «Shu and Tefnut, who
made the gods, begot the gods, and set the gods.» (2007AllenJP:55). The
conclusion regarding the natural emergence of other gods can be drawn from
Recitation № 519 of the tomb of Pepi II, constructed during the 6th Dynasty
or around 2246–2152 BCE (2007AllenJP:219). This first pair
gave birth to a second pair of gods: the earth god Geb and the sky goddess
Nut (2004РакИВ:25). Consequently, both the first and second pairs of divine
twins consisted of different sexes. Later Egyptian literature also explored
this theme; for example, the «Three Tales of Wonder» (Papyrus Westcar, Hyksos
period) tells of the birth of three sets of twins (2006LichtheimM:1.220–221).
In the biblical tradition, two boys are born with the assistance of a
midwife, who marks the presented part of the fetus (the hand) with a red
thread. This narrative may imply an analogy to Set. In Utterance № 222 (205
a-b) of the «Pyramid Texts», it is stated: «Thou whom the pregnant brought
forth, as thou didst cleave the night, thou art equipped like Set, who
mightily broke forth» (1952MercerSAB:104). According to the legend, Set
«appeared from the side of his mother Nut before the appointed time»
(2007РакИ:94).
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27 And it came to
pass at the time of her travail, that, behold, twins were in her womb. 28 And
it came to pass, when she travailed, that the one put out his hand : and the
midwife took and bound upon his hand a scarlet thread, saying. This came out
first. 29 And it came to pass, as he drew back his hand, that, behold his
brother came out; and she said. How hast thou broken forth ? this breach is
upon thee : therefore his name was called Perez. 30 And afterward came out
his brother, that had the scarlet thread upon his hand : and his name was
called Zerach.
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Color and Behavioral Symbolism The combination of the color red and the sudden «breach» of the infant
Perez reveals a direct analogy with the later Egyptian transformation of the
god Set, who was identified with the color red and a chaotic, untimely birth. |
Egypt With the passage
of time, the ancient thunder god Set was transformed into a «representative
of every evil (all red things), a true Satan, whose name was best left
unspoken» (2021МюллерМ:116). By the end
of the Middle Kingdom, Set came to be considered the «opposite» of Osiris—the
god of the desert, the personification of the evil principle, and began to be
associated with war, drought, and other calamities (2007РакИ:370). Plutarch (1st–2nd century CE), commenting on
the myth of Isis and Osiris, writes: «The Egyptians relate that Hermes
[Thoth] had short arms, Typhon [Set] was red, Horus [Hor] was white, and
Osiris was dark-skinned» (1996Плутарх:22). The ancient author further adds:
«during festivals, the Egyptians mock, humiliate, and insult red-haired
people, and the inhabitants of Coptos, for example, knock a donkey down
because Typhon [Set] was red-haired and this is a donkey's color» (1996Плутарх:30). Indeed, «Red or brown animals and reptiles particularly
symbolized Set» (2021МюллерМ:207). According
to Plutarch, «The Egyptians, believing that Typhon [Set] was red, also
sacrifice red bulls» (1996Плутарх:30). This physical description is echoed in
other sources: «On the third day, Set (Egypt. Seth) was born, the son
of Geb, a god in the form of a man with a beast’s muzzle, with eyes red as
the scorching desert sand and a red mane of the same color, the lord of
natural disasters and wars. He emerged from the side of his mother Nut before
the appointed time» (2007РакИ:94). The symbolic contrast between colors
is also evident on the «Metternich Stela» or «Stela of Horus on the
Crocodiles» (ca. 378–360 BCE) narrates: «Know not the Black, speak not to the
Red, make no distinction between the son of a noble and a poor man» (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ:169). In this context, «Black is
Osiris (the color of fertile earth); Red is Set (the color of the dead desert
sands with which Set was associated)» (2007РакИ:176).
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27 And it came to
pass at the time of her travail, that, behold, twins were in her womb. 28 And
it came to pass, when she travailed, that the one put out his hand : and the
midwife took and bound upon his hand a scarlet thread, saying. This came out
first. 29 And it came to pass, as he drew back his hand, that, behold his
brother came out; and she said. How hast thou broken forth ? this breach is
upon thee : therefore his name was called Perez. 30 And afterward came out
his brother, that had the scarlet thread upon his hand : and his name was
called Zerach.
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Obstetric-Protocol Parallelism Active involvement of midwives in complicated deliveries during
multiple pregnancies and the verbal assistance of a specialist during labor.
The Book of Genesis provides the first description of the obstetric
manipulation involving the reduction of a prolapsed small part of the fetus.
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Egypt Regarding the traditions of childbirth, the «Westcar Papyrus», dating
to the Hyksos period, recounts the birth of triplets involving the god Khnum
and a team of midwife goddesses (2006LichtheimM:1.220). In this tale told to
Pharaoh Khufu, the goddesses Isis, Nephthys, Meskhenet, and Heket act as
midwives. They are depicted accelerating the birth, apparently by applying
pressure to the abdomen, speaking to the unborn child, bestowing a name,
severing the umbilical cord, washing the newborn, and proclaiming his future (1978КоростовцевМА:33–35). Further evidence of these practices is found in the «Ramesseum IV»
papyrus (Middle Kingdom), where a midwife is recommended to recite an
incantation over the woman in labor (sae.saw-leipzig.de). Additionally, «shaggy dwarf-monsters
known as Bes-gods, and their wives—the goddesses Besit», were part of the
retinue of the goddess Meskhenet, the patroness of childbirth and assistant
to midwives (2004РакИВ:125).
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27 And it came to
pass at the time of her travail, that, behold, twins were in her womb. 28 And
it came to pass, when she travailed, that the one put out his hand : and the
midwife took and bound upon his hand a scarlet thread, saying. This came out
first. 29 And it came to pass, as he drew back his hand, that, behold his
brother came out; and she said. How hast thou broken forth ? this breach is
upon thee : therefore his name was called Perez. 30 And afterward came out
his brother, that had the scarlet thread upon his hand : and his name was
called Zerach.
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Obstetric-Protocol Parallelism Active involvement of midwives in
complicated deliveries during multiple pregnancies and the verbal assistance
of a specialist during labor. |
Mesopotamia In the Mesopotamian tradition, the Atrahasis myth states: «Let the
midwife rejoice in the house of the woman in confinement, and when the
pregnant woman gives birth let the mother of the babe sever herself»
(1999LambertWG_CivilM:63). Тhe «Myth of
Atrahasis» was composed around 1600 BCE (1989KovacsMG:xxvi). |
Legal Syncretism and Literary
Hyperbole
An analysis of the legal conflicts in Genesis 38 suggests the author's use of literary hyperbole: the threat of execution by burning for adultery correlates in severity with the «Code of Hammurabi» (18th century BCE, § 110), whereas the actual resolution of the conflict is based on the norms of the «Hittite Laws» (17th–12th centuries BCE, § 193). Judah's acknowledgment of Tamar's righteousness («she is more righteous than I») confirms the priority of levirate law, according to which the obligation to continue the lineage in the absence of sons shifted to the father (1997HoffnerJrHA). Consequently, the text demonstrates a combination of archaic Near Eastern punitive traditions with the later socio-legal institution of the levirate, which was characteristic of the Hittite environment.
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 38
Chronology
and History:
The
analysis of the term «Canaan» and the Levirate institution reveals a distinct
chronological horizon. The term «Canaan» (Hurrian Kinahhu) and the mention of
its inhabitants in the Mari archives (18th century BCE) and the Idrimi statue
(15th century BCE) indicate that the geopolitical terminology of Genesis 38 is
rooted in the Middle to Late Bronze Age. This period aligns with the peak of
diplomatic and trade activity between Mesopotamia, Alalakh, and the Levant. The
use of «Canaanite» as an ethnonym corresponds to the administrative language of
the 18th-century BCE Syrian and Mesopotamian archives (ARM 26/1).
Legal
and Social Isomorphism:
The
structural similarity between the actions of Judah and the Hittite Laws (§ 193,
17th–12th centuries BCE) demonstrates that the text operates within a specific
legal framework where the father’s role in the levirate was a documented norm.
This distinguishes the narrative from later Judean laws (Deuteronomy), shifting
the socio-legal context toward the mid-2nd millennium BCE. The sequence of the
levirate obligation (brother → father → uncle) in the Hittite code provides a
direct administrative precedent for the domestic conflict between Judah and
Tamar.
Chronology
and Mythology (Sacral-Physiological Parallelism):
The study
of the «Pyramid Texts» (6th Dynasty of Egypt, c. 23rd century BCE) reveals the
profound roots of the sacral-physiological symbolism presented in the story of
Onan (Gen. 38:9). The emphasis on the emission of semen as an act determining
the fate of a lineage or the world order finds a direct isomorphic link with
the Egyptian cosmogonic myth of Atum. This indicates that the conceptual
framework of the chapter relies on ancient Near Eastern and Egyptian notions of
vital force and the «divine world order» established as early as the 3rd
millennium BCE. The interpretation of the «interruption of seed» as a grave
offense against the divine order correlates with Egyptian texts of the Old
Kingdom, where the biological act is endowed with cosmogonic status.
Archaeology
and Toponymy (Toponymic Continuity):
Archaeological
data from Tel Adullam confirms the continuity of settlement in this location
starting from the Late Chalcolithic period (c. 4000 BCE). The presence of
ceramics from this era (research by Eirikh-Rose and Milevski, 2008) proves that
Adullam was not a literary invention but one of the oldest established sites in
the region. This provides the text with a concrete geospatial anchor in the
Levantine landscape that existed long before the formation of the monarchy. The
use of Adullam as a key location in the narrative of Judah demonstrates the
preservation of toponymic memory regarding settlements that emerged in the
4th–3rd millennia BCE.
Geography
and Metallurgy (Geospatial Identity):
The
analysis of Egyptian topographical lists from Soleb and Amarah (15th century
BCE), combined with data from the Arava Valley (Timna), confirms that the
geography of Genesis 38 is rooted in actual, strategically significant Bronze
Age routes. The localization of Timna as a copper-smelting center and its
connection to the «land of Shasu» (Seir) indicates a profound historical memory
of a region inhabited since the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods (c. 3000
BCE, according to Rothenberg's findings). The text utilizes toponyms that were
already part of the official Egyptian administrative nomenclature by the 15th
century BCE. The discovery of iron ingots produced during copper smelting in
Timna (3000 BCE) and the mention of the region in Egyptian archives provide a
concrete material context for Judah's movements.
Social
Institutions (Status Demarcation):
The
narrative arc of Judah and the «harlot» (Tamar) finds direct parallels in
Mesopotamian and Hittite traditions. The mention of the institution of harlotry
in the «Epic of Gilgamesh» (Old Babylonian period, 1800–1600 BCE) and the
specific legal provisions in the Hittite Laws (§ 194, 17th–12th centuries BCE)
demonstrate that the social status of the characters in Chapter 38 corresponds
to the legal and literary environment of the 2nd millennium BCE. The
demarcation between a free woman and a harlot as a stable social institution
was documented in detail during this specific period. Judah’s interaction with
the harlot is stylistically and institutionally resonant with scenes from the
Akkadian epic, emphasizing the text's belonging to the broader Near Eastern
cultural sphere of the Bronze Age.
Linguistics
and Administration (Etymological Parallelism):
Linguistic
analysis of the term «seal» indicates that all West Semitic forms of the word
derive from an Egyptian root, which has been attested since the Old Kingdom
(3rd millennium BCE). This suggests that the administrative and legal apparatus
described in the biblical text was shaped under the significant influence of
the Egyptian bureaucratic system long before the Iron Age. Judah’s handover of
the seal and staff to Tamar is viewed not merely as a pledge, but as a
temporary transfer of symbols of legal authority, consistent with Egyptian
traditions of identification through personal attributes.
Symbolism
and Status (Status-Identification Parallelism):
The
combination of the seal and the staff as signs of personal dignity and legal
capacity finds direct parallels in the «Coffin Texts» (Middle Kingdom, c. 2134–2040
BCE). The mention of the staff of Osiris as a symbol of authority («the Great
Shepherd») and an instrument for overcoming barriers (Spells No. 72, No. 728)
correlates with the function of Judah's staff as a personal identifier.
Archaeological finds of cylinder seals in the Naga-ed-Deir cemetery (Early
Dynastic period) confirm the antiquity of using such objects as tools for the
legal fixation of identity. The use of cylinder seals and the sacralization of
the shepherd/ruler’s staff point to a cultural horizon ranging from the 3rd to
the early 2nd millennium BCE.
Sociocultural
Status (Status-Domestic and Identification Parallelism):
The mention
of the staff as an indispensable attribute of a free man’s personal status
finds consistent support in Mesopotamian literature and historical records
across millennia. In the 12th tablet of the «Epic of Gilgamesh» (late 3rd
millennium BCE), the advice to Enkidu not to carry a staff signifies the loss
of earthly status upon entering the netherworld. Furthermore, Herodotus (5th
century BCE) notes the ubiquitous Babylonian custom of possessing a seal-ring
and an exquisitely carved staff. In the context of Genesis 38, Judah’s handover
of these items represents a profound act of temporary alienation of his civil
and legal identity, rooted in an Uruk-period tradition of cylinder seals
(post-4400 BCE).
Legal
History (Precedential Severity and Syncretism):
The
analysis reveals a complex legal syncretism. The threat of burning Tamar for
harlotry (Gen. 38:24) finds a direct isomorphic parallel in the Code of
Hammurabi (§ 110, c. 1760 BCE), where a similar capital punishment is
prescribed for a votary (sacral woman) violating social codes. However, the
actual resolution of the dispute relies on the more flexible Hittite Laws (§
193, 17th–12th centuries BCE). This suggests that the text of Genesis 38
records a transitional legal period where archaic Old Babylonian severity meets
the evolving institution of the levirate characteristic of the Middle-to-Late
Bronze Age. The threat of execution by burning serves as a literary device to
heighten the drama, while reflecting a genuine historical fear of violating the
ancestral and sacral order as established in the 18th century BCE. Judah’s
acknowledgment of Tamar’s rights confirms the priority of the levirate
protocol, shifting the narrative’s focus from punitive measures to the
preservation of the lineage, a core concern of West Semitic and Hittite
societies.
Mythological
Isomorphism (Birth of Twins and the «Breach»):
An analysis
of the «Pyramid Texts» (5th–6th Dynasties, 24th–22nd centuries BCE) and the
Westcar Papyrus (Hyksos period) reveals a stable Near Eastern tradition
concerning the birth of divine twins. Of particular significance is the
parallel between the birth of Perez (the «breach») and the mythological birth
of Set. According to Egyptian tradition (Utterance No. 222), Set «mightily
broke forth» from the side of his mother, Nut, before the appointed time,
defying the natural order. The biblical description of Perez’s sudden
emergence, overtaking his brother whose hand had already appeared, serves as a
direct literary and mythological analogy to this ancient motif of «chaotic
birth.» The first literary description of the reduction of a prolapsed small
part of the fetus, combined with the marking by a thread, reflects an actual
ancient obstetric practice couched in mythological form.
Color
and Behavioral Symbolism (The Red Thread and Set):
The
midwife's use of a red thread (Gen. 38:28) to mark the first infant finds a
comprehensive explanation in Egyptian symbolism. Set (Typhon in Plutarch’s
accounts) was consistently associated with the color red (red eyes, red mane,
red hair, red bulls), symbolizing the desert, chaos, and war. The
transformation of Set into the personification of evil by the end of the Middle
Kingdom and into the Late Period (Metternich Stela, 4th century BCE) solidified
red as a marker of danger and alterity («speak not to the Red»). The red thread
in Genesis 38 acts as an identifier, linking the infant's behavior to the
attributes of this formidable deity. The presence of these parallels indicates
that the author of the text was deeply immersed in the Egyptian religious
environment of the Bronze Age (from the Old Kingdom to the Hyksos period), when
twin myths and Setian attributes were culturally pervasive.
Medical
Practice (Reduction of the Fetal Part):
The account
of Tamar’s labor in Genesis 38 provides a unique early literary record of an
obstetric manipulation—the reduction of a prolapsed small part of the fetus
(the infant's hand) back into the birth canal to facilitate the continuation of
delivery. This protocol, combined with the active involvement of the midwife,
indicates a high level of empirical medical knowledge characteristic of
specialized professional communities in the Ancient Near East during the 2nd
millennium BCE. The use of professional assistance during a multiple pregnancy
in the text of Genesis aligns with the socio-medical standards of the
Middle-to-Late Bronze Age. The text of Genesis serves as the oldest written
record of a specific obstetric manipulation (reduction of a prolapsed limb),
placing it alongside Egyptian medical texts of the Middle and New Kingdoms.
Cross-Cultural
Obstetric Rituals:
Parallels
with the Westcar Papyrus (Hyksos period, c. 17th–16th centuries BCE) and the
Ramesseum IV Papyrus (Middle Kingdom) demonstrate a highly developed
institution of midwifery. The involvement of a «team» of midwife-goddesses,
verbal assistance (incantations), and anthropometric/hygienic procedures
(severing the umbilical cord, washing) confirm that in the Egyptian tradition,
childbirth was a sacralized yet strictly regulated professional process.
Mesopotamia:
The mention of the midwife in the Atrahasis Myth (composed c. 1600 BCE) as an
essential participant in the birthing process highlights the regional
uniformity of obstetric protocols. The midwife's role in Genesis 38 is not
limited to physical assistance; her verbal reaction («How hast thou broken
forth?») corresponds to the Near Eastern tradition of naming and proclaiming
the child's destiny at the moment of birth.
General
Conclusion
The interdisciplinary
investigation of Genesis 38 reveals a unique cultural-historical syncretism
that cannot be dismissed as a late literary invention.
Geopolitical
and Toponymic Precision: The mentions of Adullam and Timnah as active centers
(linked to Egyptian administrative nomenclature and metallurgy) align with the
documented realities of the Bronze Age.
Legal
Isomorphism: The text captures a transitional stage in Near Eastern
jurisprudence. The combination of punitive norms reflective of the Code of Hammurabi
(18th century BCE) with a levirate institution identical to the Hittite Laws
(17th–12th centuries BCE) situates the narrative within a specific legal
context of the mid-2nd millennium BCE.
Symbolic
and Material Authenticity: The reliance on Egyptian etymology for «seal» and
the use of the mythological «breach» metaphor (analogous to the god Set in the «Pyramid
Texts») indicates the author's deep integration into the cultural sphere of
Egyptian dominance in the Levant (Hyksos and New Kingdom eras).
Professional
Protocol: The description of a unique obstetric manipulation (reduction of a
fetal limb) coincides with specialized medical traditions recorded in papyri of
the Middle and New Kingdoms.
Final
Verdict
Dating of
the Core Tradition: 1700–1400 BCE (Middle-to-Late Bronze Age).
Arguments:
Presence of the Hittite-style levirate, toponyms appearing in the Soleb lists,
medical parallels with the Westcar Papyrus, and legal norms derived from the
Old Babylonian period.
Dating of
the Textual Formation: 15th–14th Centuries BCE.
The text
reflects the realities of an era preceding the radical transformations of the
Iron Age and the later development of specific Deuteronomic legislation.
Linguistic borrowings and administrative attributes (seal, staff) point to a
period of active Egyptian-Canaanite interaction.
Historical
Context:
The
narrative of Judah and Tamar serves as an authentic monument of West Semitic
tradition, emerging in an environment where Canaanite city-states were in close
contact with both Egyptian and Hittite legal systems.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 18, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 38. About round ligament of femur. March 18, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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