English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 50
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 50 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 50 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 50 Analysis
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Excerpt from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:64-65)
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Type of
similarity and justification |
Ancient Near
Eastern and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels, Analogies, Convergences,
Borrowings, and Inversions in Archaeology, Culture, Medical Knowledge, and
Historical Facts: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Anatolia, and the Nile Valley)
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2 And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his
father: and the physicians embalmed Israel. … 26 So Joseph died, being one
hundred and ten years old ; and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin
in Egypt.
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Sacred and Technological Ritual of Immortality. The similarity in the description of embalming as an obligatory
procedure for preserving the physical shell to ensure the continuity of the
soul's life, which acts as the highest manifestation of filial piety and
adherence to a divine archetype (Anubis/Osiris — Yosef/Yisrael).
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Egypt According to the legend, in the creation of the «first mummy on earth,
Isis was assisted by her sister Nephthys and Nephthys' son Anubis, an expert
in medicinal herbs and the secrets of embalming» (2004РакИВ:81). In Egypt, «for almost five thousand years, the
bodies of the deceased were mummified in imitation of the image of the
mummified Osiris» (2000БаджЭАУ). There was a
notion that «a person dies when the Ba [life force] leaves the body, flying
out through the mouth, and comes back to life after the Ba returns to the
mummy. Therefore, it is necessary to keep the deceased's body incorruptible:
so that the Ba can find its mummy» (2004РакИВ:136). In Egypt, «for almost five thousand years, the bodies of the deceased
were mummified in imitation of the image of the mummified Osiris» (2000БаджЭАУ).
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2 And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his
father: and the physicians embalmed Israel. |
Institutionalization of Medical Service. The similarity is manifested in the mention of physicians as staff
members of the state apparatus and the «House of Life», who were at the
direct disposal of high-ranking officials for providing medical assistance
and conducting ritual procedures. |
Egypt In the «Pyramid Texts», dating from 2350–2175 BCE, there is no mention
of physicians, but there is praise for healers. In utterance № 204 (118a), we
find: «Rejoice, O hoers; let the heart in the breasts of men be lifted up.»
(1952MercerSAB:86). A text on the tomb wall of the chief builder Washuptah (5th Dynasty)
recounts how, after he lost consciousness, «Physicians were summoned with
their papyri» (2001КоростовцевМА:142). Irenakhet Niankhpepi, known as the «Oculist of the Great House», is
documented from the Old Kingdom (1974PorterB_MossRLB; giza.fas.harvard.edu). In Egypt, there existed the title: «sš nsw wr swnw» — «royal scribe,
great (in the art) of healing» (2001КоростовцевМА:17). On stela CG 20023, associated with the 13th-dynasty official
Senebsumai, who was of non-noble origin, there is an image of a physician
named Ameni and a scribe of the House of Life named Keku
(1938GardinerAH:160). A of case № 1 describes the methodology for pulse determination by a
priest of Sekhmet or any physician (1930BreastedJH:78; sae.saw-leipzig.de). A. Turaev
(1916) discovered a mention of a priest of the goddess Sekhmet named Ranseneb
in a XII Dynasty papyrus (2001КоростовцевМА:120-121). In the «First Book of Vessels» (Eb854a) of the «Ebers Papyrus» it is
stated: «...any physician, any priest of Sekhmet, any magician places his
hands and fingers on the head, on the back of the head, on the hands, on the
area of the heart, on the arms, on the legs, then he assesses the heart,
because its vessels (lead) to all parts of the body.» (1889EbersG; sae.saw-leipzig.de). The «Ebers
Papyrus» is dated to 1553–1550 BCE (1947CastiglioniA:49). In the funerary papyrus No. 10481 (Egyptian Museum of Florence),
belonging to the 17th Dynasty, a physician named Menna is mentioned, who held
the position of «chief physician of the House of Life» (1954BottiG:71;
2018AbouelataM:122). Such an official could lead a team of physicians and
embalmers. The staff of the Houses of Life consisted of physicians, keepers
of myrrh and ointments, as well as priests who were scribes, among whom were
lector-priests related to embalming and magic (2001КоростовцевМА:105-106). In the «Hearst Medical
Papyrus», written during the 17th–18th Dynasty, there is a spell (H78)
mentioning a physician: «I belong to Ra, I say: I am the one who protects him
from his enemies. His leader is Thoth. He made the Scriptures speak and
compiled a collection of texts, and gave the scholar, the physician, and his
servants magical power to deliver the one whom God desires to leave me alive.
I am the one whom his God desires to keep alive.» In another spell (H214) it
is said: «Save him from the shadow of the dead! I am that Thoth, that
physician of the Eye of Horus. My father Osiris will fight in the presence of
Neith, the lady of life, and her servants.» (sae.saw-leipzig.de). See note!
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2 And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his
father: and the physicians embalmed Israel. |
Subordinate Status of Physicians. Both texts depict physicians as specialized subordinates who execute
the orders of rulers or masters within rigid state and social structures. |
Egypt A physician named Lulu practiced in Sumerian Ur around 2700 BCE
(1981KramerS:59). In the
Babylonian «Code of Hammurabi», written around 1760 BCE, we find: «§
215. If a physician operate on a man for a severe wound (or make a severe
wound upon a man) with a bronze lancet and save the man's life ; or if he
open an abscess (in the eye) of a man with a bronze lancet and save that
man's eye, he shall receive 10 shekels of silver (as his fee). … § 218. If a
physician operate on a man for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause
the man's death ; or open an abscess (in the eye) of a man with a bronze
lancet and destroy the man's eye, they shall cut off his fingers. … § 220. If
he open an abscess (in his eye) with a bronze lancet, and destroy his eye, he
shall pay silver to the extent of one-half of his price.»
(1920HandcockPSP:34-35) The Mari archives contain a letter (ARM 26/2 296) from Usur-awassu to
his lord regarding a request for physicians to be sent to Yasmakh-Addu
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:25, archibab.fr). In another letter (ARM 26/1 125), an unknown
correspondent asks the king: «My Lord should give a strict order to bring
Meranam, the physician, to me by boat. He must join me as soon as possible,
as well as Ishi-Addu, the diviner.» (1988CharpinD:289-290, archibab.fr). The Mesopotamian
archive of Mari dates back to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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2 And Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his
father: and the physicians embalmed Israel.
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Post-mortem Pathological
Examination. The similarity is manifested in the confirmation of the high
professional qualification of physicians, whose tools and anatomical
knowledge allowed for both complex intravital examinations and post-mortem
investigations of the body. |
Egypt From Case No. 33 of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), it is
evident that the author studied the pathomorphology of a compression fracture
of the cervical vertebrae (1930BreastedJH:337; sae.saw-leipzig.de). It has been noted that in the «Edwin Smith Papyrus», the depiction of
individual clinical cases relies on preceding intentional
pathological-anatomical investigations, which were routine for the medical
writer (1989RowlingJT). It is known that Egyptian physicians were involved in the inspection
of a bulls during slaughter to determine its fitness for a sacrificial meal,
a practice also observed in everyday life (1917ВикентьевВМ:45). Several depictions have been found on tomb
walls showing priests supervising the slaughter of animals. The educated
priesthood participating in sacrifices may have been more inclined toward
formulating anatomical and physiological observations (2020BlomstedtP:62).
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3 And they fulfilled for him forty days; for so they fulfil the days
of those that are embalmed; and the Egyptians wept for him seventy days. |
Sacral-Chronological
Numerical Code. The similarity is evidenced
in the use of the number seventy as a symbol of completion, representing
either the duration required to assemble all constituent parts or the total
fullness of a familial composition. |
Egypt The mummy of Osiris was completed in seventy days; however, «various
sources provide different figures for the number of days during which Isis
gathered Osiris's remains. Collectively, the search and mummification spanned
70 days—the period during which Sirius remains invisible» (2004РакИВ:81). Sothis – the morning star, Sirius, seen by the Egyptians as a goddess.
«In Egypt the star disappears below the horizon once a year for a period of
some seventy days; its reappearance in midsummer marked the beginning of the
annual inundation and the Egyptian year. The star’s rising was also seen as a
harbinger of the sunrise and therefore associ-ated with Horus in his solar
aspect, occasionally specified as Horus in Sothis (œrw jmj spdt), Sothic
Horus (œrw spdtj), or Sharp Horus (œrw spd).» (2007AllenJP:441).
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3 And they fulfilled for him forty days; for so they fulfil the days
of those that are embalmed; and the Egyptians wept for him seventy days.
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Technological and
Chronological Regulation of Mummification. The similarity is manifested in the precise correspondence of time
cycles (40 days of embalming and 70 days of mourning) to the actual stages of
chemical treatment of the body in natron and the astronomical period of the
disappearance of the star Sirius. |
Egypt In the Middle and New Kingdoms, during mummification, the body of the
deceased was placed in natron for 40 days, and then «removed, washed, dried,
and wrapped in bandages» made of linen fabric (2003FletcherJ:119). In Late
Period Egypt up to the Ptolemies (664–30 BCE), the immersion of the body in
natron lasted an average of 70 days (2017ChapmanSL:13). In the 5th century
BCE, Herodotus wrote: «the body is placed in natron lye for 70 days. However,
it is not permitted to leave the body in the lye for more than 70 days. After
this 70-day period, having washed the body, they wrap it in bandages of
byssus cloth cut into strips and smear it with gum» (1972Геродот:86). In Case № 14 of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus», the application of linen
bandages soaked in oil/fat and honey is recommended (1930BreastedJH:256; sae.saw-leipzig.de). In a similar
manner, the fabric strips used to wrap the mummified body were impregnated.
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4 And when the days of his mourning were past, Joseph spoke unto the
house of Pharaoh, saying. If now I have found grace in your eyes, speak, I
pray you, in the ears of Pharaoh, saying, … 6 And Pharaoh said. Go up, and
bury thy father, as he hath made thee swear. 7 And Joseph went up to bury his
father, and there went up with him all the servants of Pharaoh, the elders of
his house, and all the elders of the land of Egypt, |
Borrowing the word «Pharaoh». |
An Egyptian word that originally designated the palace or the
residence of the king and his administration. By the 12th Dynasty, it became
associated with the three wishes following the royal name (life, prosperity,
health), and by the New Kingdom, the term began to be used as a title for the
king himself (2021NoonanBJ:183).
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5 My father made me swear, saying, Lo, I die; in my grave, which I
have dug for me in the land of Canaan, there shalt thou bury me : now
therefore let me go up, I pray thee, and I will bury my father, and return
again. … 11 And when the inhabitants of the land, the Canaanites, saw the
mourning at the thrashing-floor of Atad, they said, This is a grievous
mourning to the Egyptians ; wherefore the name of it was called
Abel-mizrayim, which is beyond the Jordan. … 13 And his sons carried him into
the land of Canaan, and buried him in the cave of the field of Machpelah,
which field Abraham bought for a possession, as a burying-place, of Ephron
the Hittite, before Mamre.
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Ethnopolitical Isomorphism. The presence of the term «Canaan»
is characteristic of diplomatic correspondence and legal archives of the
18th–15th centuries BCE. |
Levant The inhabitants of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to
Askudum (Mari archive, ARM 26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…>
awaiting the arrival of the Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In a letter
(ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim,
«Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). The
Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). «It is thus evident that in mid-18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same arca where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398). «The earliest occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the
Old Testament is in the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the
middle of the fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu, which is attested by the
documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is supposed to be a Hurrian
word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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5 My father made me swear, saying, Lo, I die; in my grave, which I
have dug for me in the land of Canaan, there shalt thou bury me : now
therefore let me go up, I pray thee, and I will bury my father, and return
again. … 24 And Joseph said unto his brothers, I shall die; but God will
surely visit you, and bring you up out of this land unto the land which he
hath sworn to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob. 25 And Joseph caused the
children of Israel to swear, saying, God will surely visit you, and then
shall ye carry up my bones from here. |
The Imperative of Posthumous Repatriation. The similarity is manifested in the assertion of the immutable value
of burial in one's native land, which serves as a key condition for the
completion of the life cycle. |
Egypt In the story «The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor» (Middle Kingdom), we
read: «If you are brave and control your heart, you shall embrace your
children, you shall kiss your wife, you shall see your home. It is better
than everything else. You shall reach home, you shall be there among your
brothers. <…> You will reach
home in two months. You will embrace your children. You will flourish at
home, you will be buried.» (2006LichtheimM:1.213-214). In another translation of
the «Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor», the serpent says: «You shall set out on
the return journey with them, and you shall meet death [not in a distant
foreign land, but] in your native city...» (2007РакИ:190). «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom): «Whichever god decreed this flight, have mercy,
bring me home ! Surely you will let me see the place in which my heart
dwells! What is more important than that my corpse be buried in the land in
which I was born! Come to my aid! What if the happy event should occur!»
(2006LichtheimM:1.228). In another rendition of the
«Story of Sinuhe», the hero addresses the Pharaoh: «Grant that my body be
buried in the land in which I was born! What could be greater or more
desirable than this!» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:34). In the «Myth of the Eye of
the Sun» («The Flight of Hathor to Nubia», «Leiden Papyrus», 2nd-3rd
centuries AD), the god Thoth exhorts Hathor-Tefnut: «Even a crocodile, when
it grows old, leaves a foreign land and comes to die in its own pool»
(2007РакИ:69). In the «Myth of the Eye of
the Sun» the god Thoth exhorts Hathor-Tefnut: «of all that exists in the
world, nothing is loved more than one’s native land, that is, the place where
you were born» (2004РакИВ:52).
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6 And Pharaoh said. Go up, and bury thy father, as he hath made thee
swear. |
Etiquette and the Direct Sanction of the Monarch. The similarity is manifested in the recording of the moment of
personal dialogue between the Pharaoh and a subordinate official to confirm
the legality of fulfilling a family duty as a state-significant commission. |
Egypt «In the Middle Kingdom, pharaohs already communicated with nomarchs
and representatives of the nobility, participated in military campaigns, and
so forth, whereas in the Old Kingdom, only the elite of the elite could
behold the earthly deity» (2004РакИВ:109). In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle
Kingdom), there is a description of an
audience with the king: «When it dawned,
very early, they came to summon me. Ten men came and ten men went to usher me
into the palace. My forehead touched the ground between the sphinxes, and the
royal children stood in the gateway to meet me. The courtiers who usher
through the forecourt set me on the way to the audience-hall. I found his
majesty on the great throne in a kiosk of gold. Stretched out on my belly, I
did not know myself before him, while this god greeted me pleasantly.
<…> Then the royal daughters were brought in, and his majesty said to the
queen: "Here is Sinuhe, come as an Asiatic, a product of nomads!".»
(2006LichtheimM:1.231,232). «In the Old and Middle Kingdoms,
people loved to recount the execution of royal commissions and significant
deeds, often citing documents, especially royal letters» (1915ТураевБА:47).
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8 And all the house of Joseph, and his brothers, and his father's
house ; only their little ones, and their flocks, and their herds, they left
behind in the land of Goshen. |
Geographic and Administrative Localization. The similarity is found in the mention of the specific toponym
«Goshen», identified as a borderland—a region in the eastern part of the Nile
Delta suitable for settlement and animal husbandry. |
Egypt A.H. Gardiner (1924) suggested that the biblical locality «Goshen»
should be sought in the eastern Nile Delta. According to E. Naville, the land
of «Goshen» (Gesem) was located in the east, «not far» from the country. «At
the western entrance to the Goshen Valley, with its capital Pe(r)-sopd(u)
('House of Sopdu'; also called 'House of the Sycamore'), modern Saft
el-Hinna», was located the twentieth nome of the Delta, later designated as
the «Arabian nome» (2021МюллерМ:158). In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom),
it is stated: «I crossed Maaty near Sycamore; I reached Isle-of-Snefru.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.224).
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9 And there went up with him both chariots and horsemen ; and the
encampment was very great. |
Technological and lexical acculturation. Similarity is manifested in the mention of the chariot procession as
an obligatory attribute of high social status, which records the historical
moment of the integration of horse breeding and chariots into Egyptian
culture in the middle of the second millennium BCE.
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Egypt A horse skeleton excavated in Buhen, in the southern Nile Valley, is
dated approximately to 2055–1650 BCE (2014TatomirR). The document known as
«Be a Scribe» (Middle Kingdom?) implies the presence of horses: «The poor man
is turned into a driver - and the stable manager supervises him» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:248). In the «Admonitions of Ipuwer» (attributed by V.V. Struve to the
Second Intermediate Period), we find an indirect reference to horses:
«Behold, he who had no team now possesses a herd» (1978КоростовцевМА:236). The light chariot appeared in Egypt only during the Hyksos period
(2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC).
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9 And there went up with him both chariots and horsemen ; and the
encampment was very great. |
Zooarchaeological and chronological parallelism. A shared period of the spread of horses, chariots, and wagons in the
Near East. |
Mesopotamia, Anatolia Wagons and horses are depicted on the Sumerian «Standard of Ur»,
created during the Early Dynastic period, which dominated in 2550–2400 BCE
(2003AruzJ_WallenfelsR). The light chariot became widespread in the Eastern Mediterranean and
throughout the Near East in the second millennium BCE
(2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC). In a letter from the royal archives of Mari (ARM
26/2 285), we learn of a shortage of cedar wood for chariots used in rituals
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:15-18). In letter ARM 26/1 47 (Royal Archive of Mari), it is reported that
Askudum divided the cattle and horses collected from the Canaanites into
herds (1988CharpinD_LafontB:190-199, archibab.fr). In letter ARM 26/2 533, also from the Royal
Archive of Mari, the author writes about ongoing negotiations for the supply
of white Anatolian horses (1988CharpinD_LafontB:526-527, archibab.fr). The
Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). According to the «Hittite Laws» (17th–12th centuries BCE): «§ 71 If
anyone finds a (stray) ox, horse, mule (or) donkey, he shall drive it to the
king’s gate.» (1997HoffnerJrHA:80).
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10 And they came to the thrashing-floor of Atad, which is beyond
Jordan, and they held there a great and very sore lamentation ; and he made
for his father a mourning of seven days. |
Numerological correspondence. In both traditions, the number
«seven» is used as a sacred marker of the absolute completeness of an action. |
Egypt The Egyptian concept of the
Seven Hathors is well known: «A complex form of the goddess Hathor’s cult;
evidently, her simultaneous incarnation into seven hypostases» (2004РакИВ:286). Hathor («Enclosure of Horus»), the wife of
the god Horus, represents the principle of joy, feminine love, and motherhood. Pyramid of Unis (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353-2323 BCE) Recitation
№ 223: «…who
swallowed his seven uraei and his seven neckbones came into being, [who
governs] his seven Enneads and hears the sovereign’s case.»
(2007AllenJP:60). Coffin Texts (2134-2040 BCE) Spell №
213: «I
eat of red emmer, and seven loaves are in the sky in On with Re seven
portions are [on earth] with Geb, seven portions are with Osiris.» (1973FaulknerRO:170).
In the «Book of the Dead» it is stated: «I have made meat offerings
unto the seven kine and unto their bull.» (1901BudgeEAW:481).
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10 And they came to the thrashing-floor of Atad, which is beyond
Jordan, and they held there a great and very sore lamentation ; and he made
for his father a mourning of seven days. |
Numerological correspondence. In both traditions, the number «seven» is used as a sacred marker of
the absolute completeness of an action.
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Mesopotamia In the Akkadian «Epic of Gilgamesh», the numeral seven is mentioned
repeatedly: «Six days and seven nights came the wind and flood, the storm
flattening the land. When the seventh day arrived, the storm was pounding,
the flood was a war-struggling with itself like a woman writhing (in labor).»
(1989KovacsMG:101). See also: «When a seventh day arrived I sent forth a dove
and released it. <…> Seven and seven cult vessels I put in place, and
(into the fire) underneath (or: into their bowls) I poured reeds, cedar, and
myrtle.» (1989KovacsMG:145). The standard version of the
«Epic of Gilgamesh», first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800-1600
BCE) (1989KovacsMG:xxii). The Atrahasis myth tells that at a meeting of the gods, the god «We-ila, who had
personality, They slaughtered in their assembly. From his flesh and blood
Nintu mixed clay.» From this mixture «Seven produced males, [Seven] produced
females.» (1999LambertWG_CivilM:59-63). «Myth of Atrahasis», composed ca.
1600 BCE (1989KovacsMG:xxvi).
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13 And his sons carried him into the land of Canaan, and buried him in
the cave of the field of Machpelah, which field Abraham bought for a
possession, as a burying-place, of Ephron the Hittite, before Mamre. |
Memorial-legal consolidation. A profound structural similarity in the existential priority placed
upon the acquisition of a permanent, legally recognized funerary estate to
ensure the continuity of memory and the preservation of sacred burial space.
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Egypt In «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «The dance of
the mrow-dancers is done at the door of your tomb; the offering-list is read
to you; sacrifice is made before your offering-stone. Your tomb-pillars, made
of white stone, are among (those of) the royal children.» (2006LichtheimM:1:229-230);
«A stone pyramid was built for me in the midst of the pyramids. The masons
who build tombs constructed it. A master draughtsman designed in it. A master
sculptor carved in it. The overseers of construction in the necropolis busied
themselves with it. All the equipment that is placed in a tomb-shaft was
supplied. Mortuary priests were given me. A funerary domain was made for me.»
(2006LichtheimM:1:233); It has been observed that in the texts on the walls of Egyptian tombs,
«nobles constantly emphasize that it is their legal property, and that they
have not violated the rights of others» (1920ТураевБА:49).
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13 And his sons carried him into the land of Canaan, and buried him in
the cave of the field of Machpelah, which field Abraham bought for a
possession, as a burying-place, of Ephron the Hittite, before Mamre. |
Ethnogenetic
Verification. Fixation of
the presence of Indo-European groups (Hittites) in the Levant as a
consequence of a migratory wave element.
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Levant n 1800 BCE, a
case of the presence of a Lycian [Hittite] from Western Asia Minor was
recorded in Byblos, Phoenicia (1966KitchenKA).
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15 And when Joseph's brothers saw that their father was dead, they
said, Peradventure Joseph may now hate us ; and then he would certainly
requite us all the evil which we have done unto him. 16 And they sent word
unto Joseph, saying. Thy father did command before his death, saying, 17 So
shall ye say unto Joseph, forgive, I pray thee, the trespass of thy brothers,
and their sin ; for evil have they done unto thee : and now, we pray thee,
forgive the trespass of the servants of the God of thy father ; and Joseph
wept when they spoke unto him. 18 And his brothers also went and fell down
before him; and they said. Behold, we will be thy servants.
|
Political climate of suspicion. The similarity is expressed in the description of a shared atmosphere
of extreme distrust, where even kinship ties are subjected to rigorous
verification and viewed as a potential instrument of conspiracy or espionage. |
Egypt In the «Instruction of King Amenemhat» (12th Dynasty) we read: «Beware
of subjects who are nobodies, Of whose plotting one is not aware. Trust not a
brother, know not a friend, Make no intimates, it is worthless. When you lie
down, guard your heart yourself, For no man has adherents on the day of woe.»
(2006LichtheimM:1.136).
|
|
19 And Joseph said unto them, Fear not; for am I in the place of God?
20 But as for you, though ye thought evil against me, God meant it unto good;
in order to bring to pass, as it is this day, to save alive a numerous
people. 21 Now therefore fear ye not, I will support you, and your little
ones ; and he comforted them, and spoke kindly unto them.
|
The Ethical Code of the
Ruler. The similarity is manifested
in the realization of the concept of a merciful ruler guided by the principle
of state magnanimity and concern for the welfare of subjects and «inner
circle».
|
Egypt In «The Instruction Addressed to King Merikare» (Middle Kingdom) speaks: «Make people come [to
you] through your good nature, A wretch is who desires the land [of his
neighbor], A fool is who covets what others possess.» (2006LichtheimM:1.100). In «The Instruction of the Herakleopolitan King to his son Merikare»
(11th Dynasty), we also read: «Remember: magnanimity is the ornament of a
king.» Further, it states: «Let everyone from your inner circle prosper on
the earth» (1978КоростовцевМА:212,217). In «The Instruction of Ptahhotep» (Old Kingdom), we find: «If thou be
a leader, as one directing the conduct of the multitude, endeavour
always to be gracious, that
thine own conduct be without defect.» (1908BattiscombeG:43).
|
|
21 Now therefore fear ye not, I will support you, and your little ones
; and he comforted them, and spoke kindly unto them.
|
Psychological parallel. A direct parallel between the «heart» and the inner «self», endowing
this organ with the functions of rational thinking, moral judgment, and the
source of the individual's volitional decisions.
|
Egypt The heart as an organ of thought, will, and ethical choice is
repeatedly mentioned in ancient Egyptian texts. Pyramid of
Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE) Recitation № 404 «You shall take (them) for him to every place
in which his heart might wish to be.»
(2007AllenJP:274). Pyramid of
Pepi II (6th Dynasty, ca. 2246–2152 BCE) Recitation № 319 «His son shall provide this Pepi Neferkare
with life; he shall make it happy for his heart, he shall make it pleasant
for his heart; he shall establish for him the Nile Valley, he shall establish
for him the Delta;» (2007AllenJP:265). Pyramid of Unis (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353-2323 BCE) Recitation
№ 180: «Unis
is the sky’s bull, with terrorizing in his heart, who lives on the evolution
of every god, who eats their bowels when they have come from the Isle of Flame
with their belly filled with magic.» (2007AllenJP:51). Pyramid Texts (2350-2175 BCE) in Utterance
№ 650 (1836a-b): «He equips N. with life; he makes his heart rejoice; he
makes his heart sweet.» (1952MercerSAB:450). Coffin
Texts
(2134-2040 BCE) Spell № 64 «…see, I bring it to you that your hear may be made
glad by means of it; I bring to you the Eye of Horus, that your heart may be
made glad by means of it.» (1973FaulknerRO:60). Coffin
Texts
(2134-2040 BCE) Spell № 148 «The lightning flash strikes, the gods are afraid,
Isis wakes pregnant with the seed of her brother Osiris. She is uplifted,
(even she) the widow, and her heart is glad with the seed of her brother
Osiris. She says: 'O you gods, I am Isis, the sister of Osiris, who wept for
the father of the gods, (even) Osiris who judged the slaughterings of the Two
Lands.»
(1973FaulknerRO:125). «The Instruction Addressed to Kagemni» (the latter part of the 6th
Dynasty): «When you drink with a drunkard, Take when his heart is content.
Don't fall upon meat by the side of a glutton, Take when he gives you, don't
refuse it, Then it will soothe.» (2006LichtheimM:1.60). «The Instruction of Ptahhotep» (the latter part of the 6th Dynasty):
«He whose heart obeys his belly Puts contempt of himself in place of love,
His heart is bald, his body unanointed; The great-hearted is god-given, He
who obeys his belly belongs to the enemy.» (2006LichtheimM:1.67); «A man in
distress wants to pour out his heart More than that his case be won»
(2006LichtheimM:1.68); «Dispute with him after a time, Test his heart in
conversation; If what he has seen escapes him, If he does a thing that annoys
you, Be yet friendly with him, don't attack;» (2006LichtheimM:1.72). «The Complaints of Khakheperre-sonb» (Middle Kingdom): «He said to his heart: Come, my
heart, I speak to you, Answer me my sayings!» (2006LichtheimM:1.147-148). «The Tale of the Shipwrecked
Sailor» (Middle Kingdom): «Each of them-his heart was stouter, his arm
stronger than his mate's.» (2006LichtheimM:1.213). «The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle
Kingdom): «Then his heart was happy beyond everything, and they sat down to a
day of feasting.» (2006LichtheimM:1.221).
|
|
22 And Joseph dwelt in Egypt, he, and his father's house ; and Joseph
lived one hundred and ten years. … 26 So Joseph died, being one hundred and
ten years old ; and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.
|
The Ideal Life Cycle. The similarity is manifested
in the mention of the age of one hundred and ten years as a sacred and
socially sanctioned norm of longevity, testifying to supreme divine favor
toward an individual and one who possesses magic.
|
Egypt In Ancient Egyptian texts, «an ideal lifespan of 110 years is
frequently mentioned» (2001TaylorJH). In the «Tales of the Sons of Pharaoh Khufu», dating to the Middle
Kingdom period, it is stated: the magician «is a commoner named Djedi, he
lives in the village of Djed-Snefru. He is one hundred and ten years of age»
(1978КоростовцевМА:28). In another
translation of the «Three Tales of Wonder» (Papyrus Westcar, Hyksos period)
we read: «There is a man named Djedi who lives in Djed-Snefru. He is a man of
a hundred and ten years who eats five hundred loaves of bread, half an ox for
meat, and drinks one hundred jugs of beer to this very day.» (2006LichtheimM:1.217-218). In «Papyrus Anastasi III» (New Kingdom), there is a wish to «live for
110 years» (2001КоростовцевМА:49). In the epilogue of «The Story of
Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «My statue was overlaid
with gold, its skirt with electrum. It was his majesty who ordered it made.
There is no commoner for whom the like has been done. I was in the favor of
the king, until the day of landing came.» (2006LichtheimM:1.233).
|
|
22 And Joseph dwelt in Egypt, he, and his father's house ; and Joseph
lived one hundred and ten years. … 26 So Joseph died, being one hundred and
ten years old ; and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.
|
Chronological Hyperbolization. The use of anomalously large
numbers serves as a literary device to denote the antiquity of the era and
the sacred status of the described characters in both traditions. |
Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia, historical figures were attributed legendary
longevity. There existed a list of kings compiled by Sumerian scribes at the
end of the second millennium BCE. For example, the kings of «the first
dynasty after the deluge also reigned for an average of a thousand years, and
subsequently for two hundred years each» (1961ВуллиЛ:15).
|
|
25 And Joseph caused the children of Israel to swear, saying, God will
surely visit you, and then shall ye carry up my bones from here. |
Onomastic authenticity. The identified structural similarity in the use of the theophoric
element «El» confirms that the biblical text belongs to the authentic Near
Eastern naming tradition of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
|
Mesopotamia The theophoric element «El» in personal names is frequently
encountered in the documents of the Mari archives. An example is a letter
(ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). In a
letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed to Zimri-Lim, 'Yakhsib-El, the
Hanaean' is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Yeskit-El, in a letter (ARM
26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mesopotamian archive of Mari dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
|
|
26 So Joseph died, being one hundred and ten years old ; and they
embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.
|
Borrowing of the word «ark».
|
Egypt The term is an Egyptian borrowing
meaning «coffin, chest», as well as «shrine, chamber» (2021NoonanBJ:217). According to Plutarch (1st–2nd century AD), through Set's trickery,
Osiris «stepped into the coffin and lay down. Then the conspirators ran up,
slammed the lid shut, and having fastened it from the outside with nails and
sealed it with molten lead, they dragged the coffin to the river and cast it
into the sea at Tanis, through the mouth» (1996Плутарх:3). According to legend, as a result of Set's conspiracy, Osiris was
enclosed in a sarcophagus that was thrown into the river and subsequently
reached the sea. «The sea waves carried the sarcophagus with Osiris’s dead
body to the shores of Byblos; the surf cast it onto the land, and the
sarcophagus came to rest upon a young sprout of a tamarisk tree»
(2007РакИ:97).
|
Physicians
of Ancient Greece and Israel
Ancient
Greek physicians are mentioned in the second book of Homer's Iliad (Ὅμηρος. Ἰλιάς, c. 8th century BCE): «And they that held
Oechalia, the city of Eurytus the Oechalian, over these again led the two sons
of Asclepius, the skilled healers Podaleirius and Machaon» (1960Гомер:2.730-732). Regarding the high
level of Egyptian medicine, we read in the fourth book of the Odyssey: «Such
cunning drugs had the daughter of Zeus, drugs of healing, which Polydamna, the
wife of Thon, had given her, a woman of Egypt, for there the earth, the giver
of grain, bears greatest store of drugs, many that are healing when mixed, and
many that are baneful; there every man is a physician, wise above human kind;
for they are of the race of Paeeon» (Note: Paeeon is an ancient healing deity)
(1981Гомер:4.228–232).
Physicians from among the Hebrews did not achieve prominence until the Middle
Ages (1947CastiglioniA:49).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 50
Sacred and Technological Ritual of Immortality
The textual description of Jacob's embalming
(Genesis 50:2-3) reveals a profound archetypal similarity to the Egyptian cult
of Osiris, where the preservation of the body is a prerequisite for the return
of the «Ba,» as documented in sources since the Old Kingdom (3rd millennium
BCE). The mention of this procedure as an act of Joseph’s filial piety mirrors
the mythological roles of Anubis and Horus, legitimizing the patriarch's
actions within the framework of Egyptian sacred tradition. This layer of the
text demonstrates precision in conveying theological concepts of immortality
characteristic of Egypt throughout the entire Dynastic period, including the
Middle and New Kingdoms (c. 2000–1000 BCE).
Institutionalization of Medical Service
The mention of «servant-physicians» in Genesis
50:2 aligns with the Egyptian administrative model where specialized medical
professionals were integrated into the state hierarchy and the «House of Life.»
Historical evidence, such as the title sš nsw wr swnw and the 17th-Dynasty
records of Menna, confirms that high-ranking officials had direct command over
medical staff for both clinical and ritual (embalming) duties. This
institutional structure, well-documented from the Old Kingdom through the New
Kingdom (c. 2600–1200 BCE), suggests that the biblical narrator possessed an
accurate understanding of the Egyptian bureaucracy regarding the intersection
of medicine and the funerary cult.
Post-mortem Pathological Examination
The advanced anatomical expertise attributed to
the «servant-physicians» in Genesis 50:2 correlates with the empirical
tradition of Egyptian medical writers, such as the author of the Edwin Smith
Papyrus (c. 1650–1550 BCE), who conducted routine pathological investigations.
The involvement of physicians and priests in post-mortem examinations,
including the veterinary inspection of sacrificial animals (documented since
the Old Kingdom), underscores a level of specialized knowledge necessary for
the complex mummification process described in the biblical text. This
intersection of clinical observation and ritual practice suggests that the
narrative of Genesis 50 reflects a period when Egyptian medical science was at
its peak, particularly during the Middle Kingdom and early New Kingdom (c.
18th–16th centuries BCE).
Sacral-Chronological Numerical Code
The mention of the seventy-day period in
Genesis 50:3 reflects a profound alignment with the Egyptian Sothic cycle,
specifically the 70-day invisibility of the star Sirius (Sothis) which
symbolized the transition between death and rebirth. This numerical code,
documented as early as the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350–2175 BCE) and emphasized in
the Osiris myth, identifies the mourning period for Jacob not merely as a local
custom, but as a cosmologically synchronized ritual of completion. The integration
of this specific duration into the Hebrew narrative suggests the author’s
exposure to Egyptian astronomical and theological frameworks prevalent during
the Middle and New Kingdoms (c. 2000–1200 BCE).
Technological and Chronological Regulation of
Mummification
The chronological framework of 40 days for
embalming and 70 days for mourning in Genesis 50:3 provides a precise technical
match with Egyptian mummification protocols, specifically those prevalent
during the Middle and New Kingdoms (c. 2040–1070 BCE). The 40-day period
corresponds to the intensive chemical dehydration of the body in natron, while
the 70-day total duration aligns with the broader ritual cycle and the
astronomical disappearance of Sirius. Furthermore, the use of impregnated linen
bandages, as described in the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1650–1550 BCE), confirms
that the biblical account reflects the specific medical and technological
standards of the mid-second millennium BCE, rather than the extended 70-day
natron immersion typical of the Late Period (after 664 BCE) described by
Herodotus.
Technological
and Chronological Regulation of Mummification
The
technical timeframe of 40 days for embalming and 70 days for mourning in
Genesis 50:3 precisely mirrors the mummification protocols of the Middle and
New Kingdoms (c. 2040–1070 BCE), where the 40-day stage represented the active
chemical dehydration in natron. The biblical text's linguistic shift toward
using the term «Pharaoh» as a direct title for the monarch further anchors this
narrative in the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), the period when this metonymic
usage transitioned from referring to the royal palace to the person of the king
himself. This synthesis of technical accuracy—matching the Edwin Smith Papyrus
(c. 1650 BCE)—and specific linguistic evolution suggests a composition date
contemporaneous with the zenith of Egyptian administrative and funerary
culture.
Ethnopolitical
Isomorphism
The
systematic use of the geographic and ethno-political term «Canaan» in Genesis
50:11 provides a critical chronological anchor, as this terminology aligns
precisely with diplomatic and legal archives from the 18th to the 15th
centuries BCE. Evidence from the Mari archives (c. 1800–1750 BCE) and the
Idrimi statue (c. 15th century BCE) confirms that «Canaan» was an established
international designation for the Levant during the Middle and Late Bronze
Ages. This specific nomenclature reflects an authentic geopolitical reality of
the second millennium BCE, predating the shifts in regional terminology that
occurred after the Iron Age transition.
The
Imperative of Posthumous Repatriation
The
persistent emphasis on Jacob’s burial in Canaan (Genesis 50:5, 13) reflects a
core Egyptian cultural value of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1782 BCE), where
death in a foreign land was viewed as a spiritual catastrophe. Literary
parallels from «The Story of Sinuhe» and «The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor»
demonstrate that the «happy event» of being buried in one's native soil was
considered the ultimate fulfillment of a successful life cycle. This ethical
and existential imperative, which transcends mere tribal tradition, aligns the
biblical narrative with the high-status Egyptian literary motifs of the early
second millennium BCE, emphasizing the necessity of returning to one's origins
for a «proper» transition to the afterlife.
Etiquette
and the Direct Sanction of the Monarch
The formal
interaction between Joseph and the Egyptian court regarding his family's burial
request (Genesis 50:4–6) accurately mirrors the documented court etiquette of
the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1782 BCE). Unlike the inaccessible «earthly deity»
of the Old Kingdom, the Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom—as seen in «The Story of
Sinuhe»—engaged in direct dialogue with high-ranking officials and regulated
their movements through formal petitions and royal sanctions. The biblical
description of Joseph’s reliance on the «House of Pharaoh» and the subsequent
royal decree aligns with the historical transition toward a more integrated
administrative communication, providing a strong contextual link to the Middle
Bronze Age (c. 2000–1600 BCE).
Geographic
and Administrative Localization
The
geographic localization of «Goshen» in Genesis 50:8 as a distinct pastoral
borderland aligns with the historical and archaeological identification of the
eastern Nile Delta (the 20th nome, later known as the Arabian nome). The
mention of specific landmarks like the «Sycamore» in both the biblical text and
«The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom, c. 19th century BCE) suggests an
authentic administrative familiarity with the topography of the Wadi Tumilat
region. This precise toponymy and its association with a semi-autonomous
pastoral population characterize the frontier policy of the Middle and early
New Kingdoms (c. 2000–1400 BCE), prior to the large-scale urbanization of the
Delta in later periods.
Technological
and Lexical Acculturation
The
description of a funerary procession involving chariots and horsemen in Genesis
50:9 serves as a precise terminus post quem, synchronizing the narrative with
the military and social revolution of the Second Intermediate Period and early
New Kingdom (c. 1700–1550 BCE). While horse remains at Buhen (c. 2000 BCE) and
references in the Mari Archives (18th century BCE) confirm the early presence
of equines in the Near East, the specific integration of the light chariot into
Egyptian state ceremony is a hallmark of the Hyksos and post-Hyksos eras. This
technological parallelism, documented in both the Admonitions of Ipuwer and the
Hittite Laws, anchors the text in a mid-second millennium BCE context where the
chariot had become the definitive symbol of high-status administrative
mobility.
Numerological
Correspondence
The use of
the numeral seven as a marker of ritual and cosmological completeness in
Genesis 50:10 (the seven-day mourning at the threshing floor of Atad) reflects
a widespread Near Eastern and Egyptian sacral-mathematical tradition
established by the 3rd millennium BCE. Parallels in the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350
BCE) and the Coffin Texts (c. 2100 BCE) utilize the «sevenfold» structure to
denote divine satiety and legal sovereignty, while the Epic of Gilgamesh (c.
1800–1600 BCE) and the Atrahasis Myth employ the same septenary cadence to
define the boundaries of life-altering events and transitions. This shared
numerological code suggests that the 50th chapter of Genesis was formulated
within a cultural milieu where «seven» served as the standard liturgical unit
for the finalization of a sacred act, particularly during the Middle Bronze
Age.
Memorial-Legal
Consolidation and Ethnogenetic Verification
The
emphasis in Genesis 50:13 on the Machpelah cave as a «possession of a burial
place» aligns with the high-status Egyptian legal tradition of the Middle
Kingdom (c. 2040–1782 BCE), where the acquisition of a funerary estate was a
documented prerequisite for existential security. Parallels in «The Story of
Sinuhe» emphasize that a «funerary domain» was not merely a grave but a legally
protected, stone-built infrastructure integrated into the royal necropolis
system. Furthermore, the presence of Hittite/Indo-European groups in the
Levant, as mentioned in the biblical narrative, finds historical support in the
migratory waves documented in Byblos (c. 1800 BCE), confirming a geopolitical
landscape consistent with the Middle Bronze Age.
Political
Climate and the Ethical Code of the Ruler
The
psychological tension between Joseph and his brothers in Genesis 50:15–21
reflects the political climate of suspicion characteristic of the Middle
Kingdom (12th Dynasty), as articulated in the Instruction of King Amenemhat I,
where even fraternal ties are viewed through the lens of potential betrayal.
Conversely, Joseph’s response embodies the Egyptian ethical ideal of the «merciful
ruler» (magnanimity as the «ornament of a king»), a central theme in the
Instruction of King Merikare and the Maxims of Ptahhotep. This
dualism—balancing extreme administrative vigilance with state-sanctioned benevolence
toward one's «inner circle»—anchors the narrative’s moral and political
philosophy in the established literary and didactic traditions of the early
second millennium BCE (c. 2000–1600 BCE).
Psychological
Parallel
The
psychological interiority of Joseph and his brothers (Genesis 50:15–21) aligns
with the ancient Egyptian «theology of the heart» (ib/haty), where the heart
functions as the primary seat of rational thought, memory, and moral agency.
This conceptualization, documented from the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350 BCE) to the
Middle Kingdom «Instructions» (c. 19th century BCE), defines the heart as an
independent entity capable of being «tested,» «comforted,» or «poured out.» The
biblical narrator’s emphasis on Joseph «speaking to the hearts» of his brothers
reflects a sophisticated literary technique rooted in the sapiential traditions
of the second millennium BCE, where emotional reconciliation and administrative
discernment are governed by the heart’s alignment with divine order (Maat).
The
Ideal Life Cycle
The
attribution of a 110-year lifespan to Joseph (Genesis 50:22, 26) constitutes a
definitive cultural and chronological marker, as this specific number served as
the canonical Egyptian symbol for a «perfect life» and divine favor. Evidence
from the Middle Kingdom (Papyrus Westcar, c. 18th–16th centuries BCE) and the
New Kingdom (Papyrus Anastasi III) identifies 110 years as the reward for one
who lives according to Maat (truth/order) and possesses spiritual wisdom. This «Egyptian
longevity» stands in stark contrast to the Mesopotamian tradition of
chronological hyperbolization, where legendary figures were assigned thousands
of years, further confirming that the author of Genesis 50 was operating within
an Egyptian-centric sapiential framework of the second millennium BCE.
Onomastic
Authenticity and Lexical Borrowing
The use of
the theophoric element «El» in the naming conventions of the patriarchal era
finds direct onomastic parallels in the Mari archives (c. 18th century BCE),
where names such as Ibal-pi-El and Yakhsib-El reflect a verified West Semitic
linguistic stratum of the Middle Bronze Age. Furthermore, the biblical term for
«ark» (coffin/chest) in Genesis 50:26 is a specific Egyptian loanword,
conceptually and terminologically linked to the funerary «chest» of the Osiris
myth. The convergence of authentic 18th-century BCE Amorite onomastics with
specialized Egyptian mortuary vocabulary reinforces the conclusion that the
narrative was shaped by an author possessing precise knowledge of both
Levantine and Nilotic cultures during the second millennium BCE.
General
Conclusion
The
multidisciplinary research conducted herein demonstrates a profound isomorphism
between the biblical text of Genesis 50 and the historical realities of the
Bronze Age, substantiated by the following key arguments:
Techno-Medical
Precision: The description of the embalming process (specifically the 40-day
dehydration and the 70-day ritual cycle) and the mention of «servant-physicians»
(staff members of the House of Life) align perfectly with Egyptian protocols of
the Middle and New Kingdoms, as documented in the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1650
BCE).
Geopolitical
Synchronization: The systematic use of onomastics featuring the theophoric
element «El» and the toponym «Canaan» finds direct parallels in the Mari
archives (18th century BCE) and the Idrimi statue (15th century BCE),
reflecting the authentic international lexicon of that era.
Cultural
and Linguistic Markers: The term «ark» (’ārōn) as an Egyptian lexical borrowing
and the sacred lifespan of 110 years (the quintessential ideal of longevity in
Egyptian literature, e.g., Papyrus Westcar) indicate that the author was deeply
integrated into the Egyptian courtly and religious milieu.
Technological
Benchmarking: The inclusion of a chariot procession within the funerary rites
serves as a precise terminus post quem, pointing to the period following Hyksos
influence (17th–16th centuries BCE), when equines and light chariots became
integral to state ceremonial protocols.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the synthesis of all presented factors—ranging from specific
pathological-anatomical knowledge to the administrative etiquette associated
with the titular use of «Pharaoh»—the dating of the core narrative of Genesis
Chapter 50 is established between the 18th and 15th centuries BCE (the Middle
Kingdom and the early New Kingdom).
The text exhibits a level of technical and cultural detail that would be unattainable for a later redactor of the First or Second Temple periods, who would inevitably introduce anachronisms (e.g., regarding the specific duration of natron immersion or the professional status of physicians). Consequently, Genesis 50 stands as an authentic Late Bronze Age historical-literary document, preserving unique evidence of the integration of Semitic patriarchs into the Egyptian state system.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 24, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 50. About round ligament of femur. March 24, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
NB! Fair practice / use: copied for the purposes of criticism, review, comment, research and private study in accordance with Copyright Laws of the US: 17 U.S.C. §107; Copyright Law of the EU: Dir. 2001/29/EC, art.5/3a,d; Copyright Law of the RU: ГК РФ ст.1274/1.1-2,7
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