English version of the article: Архипов СВ. Книга Берешит как великая компиляция текстов и смыслов Второго переходного периода Египта: пилотная культурологическая, медицинская, археологическая и текстологическая экспертиза преданий против традиционной атрибуции. Введение. О круглой связке бедра. 14.02.2026. The text in Russian is available at the following link: 2026АрхиповСВ
The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 50
By Sergey V. Arkhipov, MD, PhD
CONTENT [i] Abstract [ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 50 Analysis [iii] Notes to Chapter 50 [iv] AI Agent's Conclusion [v] Content [vi] External links [vii] Application |
The Book of Genesis (Bereshith) was composed in Egypt during the 17th century BCE and reached its definitive protographic form following the Minoan eruption of Thera. This study argues that the work was the result of a collaboration between an Egyptian polymath and a distinguished scribe of Asiatic descent. By analyzing ancient texts, anatomical descriptions, archaeological data, Bronze Age cultural history, and climatic markers, this article demonstrates that the book emerged from the work of a high-ranking socio-political committee within the Egyptian House of Life. We argue that the inclusion of precise anatomical data, such as the ligamentum capitis femoris, serves as a diagnostic marker of this Egyptian medical-scribal collaboration, challenging the late-date theories of the documentary hypothesis.
[ii] Book of Genesis. Chapter 50 Analysis
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Excerpts from the
Book of Genesis (1922LeeserI:64-65)
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Type of
Similarity and Justification |
Ancient Near Eastern
and Egyptian Contexts (Parallels,
Analogies, Similarity, Borrowings, Inversions)
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2 And Joseph
commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father: and the
physicians embalmed Israel. … 26 So Joseph died, being one hundred and ten
years old ; and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.
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Sacred and Technological Ritual of Immortality The similarity in the description of embalming as an obligatory
procedure for preserving the physical shell to ensure the continuity of the
soul's life, which acts as the highest manifestation of filial piety and
adherence to a divine archetype (Anubis/Osiris — Yosef/Yisrael).
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Egypt The practice of
mummification in Egypt was deeply rooted in the myth of Osiris, providing a
ritual blueprint for all subsequent generations. According to the legend, in
the creation of the «first mummy on earth, Isis was assisted by her sister
Nephthys and Nephthys' son Anubis, an expert in medicinal herbs and the
secrets of embalming» (2004РакИВ:81). In Egypt, «for almost five thousand
years, the bodies of the deceased were mummified in imitation of the image of
the mummified Osiris» (2000БаджЭАУ). This preservation
was essential for the spiritual survival of the individual. There was a
notion that «a person dies when the Ba [life force] leaves the body, flying
out through the mouth, and comes back to life after the Ba returns to the
mummy. Therefore, it is necessary to keep the deceased's body incorruptible,
so that the Ba can find its mummy» (2004РакИВ:136).
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2 And Joseph
commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father: and the
physicians embalmed Israel. |
Institutionalization of Medical Service The similarity is manifested in the mention of physicians as staff
members of the state apparatus and the «House of Life», who were at the
direct disposal of high-ranking officials for providing medical assistance
and conducting ritual procedures. |
Egypt The evolution of
the medical profession in Egypt can be traced from early religious healers to
a highly structured state office. In the «Pyramid Texts» (2350–2175 BCE),
there is no specific mention of the term for «physician» (swnw), though
healers are praised. In Utterance № 204 (118a), we find: «Rejoice, O hoers;
let the heart in the breasts of men be lifted up» (1952MercerSAB:86). By the Old
Kingdom, however, physicians were already integral to the royal court. A text
on the tomb wall of the chief builder Washuptah (5th Dynasty) recounts how,
after he lost consciousness: «Physicians were summoned with their papyri»
(2001КоростовцевМА:142). Specialists like Irenakhet Niankhpepi, known as the
«Oculist of the Great House», are well-documented from this period
(1974PorterB_MossRLB; giza.fas.harvard.edu). The high status
of the profession is confirmed by the title: sš nsw wr swnw — «royal scribe, great
in the art of healing» (2001КоростовцевМА:17). The link between medicine, the
priesthood, and the state continued through the Middle and New Kingdoms.
Stela CG 20023 (13th Dynasty) depicts a physician named Ameni alongside a
scribe of the «House of Life» named Keku (1938GardinerAH:160). The Smith and
Ebers Papyri demonstrate that clinical observation was shared by various
specialists. Case № 1 of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» describes pulse
determination by either a «priest of Sekhmet or any physician» (1930BreastedJH:78;
sae.saw-leipzig.de). A. Turaev
(1916) discovered a mention of a priest of the goddess Sekhmet named Ranseneb
in a 12th Dynasty papyrus (2001КоростовцевМА:120–121). In the
«First Book of Vessels» (Eb854a) of the «Ebers Papyrus» it is stated: «...any
physician, any priest of Sekhmet, any magician places his hands and fingers
on the head, on the back of the head, on the hands, on the area of the heart,
on the arms, on the legs, then he assesses the heart, because its vessels
(lead) to all parts of the body.» (1889EbersG; sae.saw-leipzig.de). The «Ebers
Papyrus» is dated to 1553–1550 BCE (1947CastiglioniA:49). In the funerary
papyrus № 10481 (Egyptian Museum of Florence), belonging to the 17th Dynasty,
a physician named Menna is mentioned, who held the position of «chief
physician of the House of Life» (1954BottiG:71; 2018AbouelataM:122). Crucially,
the «House of Life» served as the intersection where medicine met the ritual
of embalming. In funerary papyrus № 10481 (17th Dynasty), a physician named
Menna is identified as the «chief physician of the House of Life»
(1954BottiG:71; 2018AbouelataM:122). Such an official could lead a
multifaceted team. The staff of these institutions consisted of physicians,
keepers of myrrh and ointments, and lector-priests who were experts in both
embalming and magic (2001КоростовцевМА:105–106). This divine
sanction of the medical craft is articulated in the «Hearst Medical Papyrus»
(17th–18th Dynasty). Spell H78 mentions a physician: «I belong to Ra, I say:
I am the one who protects him from his enemies. His leader is Thoth. He made
the Scriptures speak and compiled a collection of texts, and gave the
scholar, the physician, and his servants magical power to deliver the one
whom God desires to leave me alive. I am the one whom his God desires to keep
alive.» In another Spell (H214) it is said: «Save him from the shadow of the
dead! I am that Thoth, that physician of the Eye of Horus. My father Osiris
will fight in the presence of Neith, the lady of life, and her servants.» (sae.saw-leipzig.de). See note!
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2 And Joseph
commanded his servants the physicians to embalm his father: and the
physicians embalmed Israel. |
Subordinate Status of Physicians Both texts depict physicians as
specialized subordinates who execute the orders of rulers or masters within
rigid state and social structures. |
Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia,
the medical profession was integrated into the legal and bureaucratic
structures of the state from the earliest periods. A physician named Lulu is
recorded to have practiced in Sumerian Ur as early as around 2700 BCE
(1981KramerS:59). The Babylonian
«Code of Hammurabi» (ca. 1760 BCE) established strict professional liability
and standardized fees for medical procedures. We find the following
provisions: Ǥ 215. If a
physician operate on a man for a severe wound (or make a severe wound upon a
man) with a bronze lancet and save the man's life ; or if he open an abscess
(in the eye) of a man with a bronze lancet and save that man's eye, he shall
receive 10 shekels of silver (as his fee). <…> § 218. If a physician
operate on a man for a severe wound with a bronze lancet and cause the man's
death ; or open an abscess (in the eye) of a man with a bronze lancet and
destroy the man's eye, they shall cut off his fingers. <…> § 220. If he
open an abscess (in his eye) with a bronze lancet, and destroy his eye, he
shall pay silver to the extent of one-half of his price.» (1920HandcockPSP:34–35) Administrative records from the Mari archives (18th century BCE)
further demonstrate that physicians were high-ranking specialists at the
disposal of the monarchy. The Mari archives contain a letter (ARM 26/2 296)
from Usur-awassu to his lord regarding a request for physicians to be sent to
Yasmakh-Addu (1988CharpinD_LafontB:25, archibab.fr). In another letter (ARM
26/1 125), an unknown correspondent asks the king: «My Lord should give a
strict order to bring Meranam, the physician, to me by boat. He must join me
as soon as possible, as well as Ishi-Addu, the diviner.» (1988CharpinD:289–290,
archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian
source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106). |
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2 And Joseph commanded
his servants the physicians to embalm his father: and the physicians embalmed
Israel.
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Post-mortem Pathological Examination The similarity is manifested in the confirmation of the high
professional qualification of physicians, whose tools and anatomical
knowledge allowed for both complex intravital examinations and post-mortem
investigations of the body. |
Egypt The medical knowledge of Egyptian physicians of the Middle Kingdom may
have been based on systematic pathological and anatomical research. From Case № 33 of
the «Edwin Smith Papyrus» (1650–1550 BCE), it is evident that the author
studied the pathomorphology of a compression fracture of the cervical
vertebrae (1930BreastedJH:337; sae.saw-leipzig.de). It has been
noted that in the «Edwin Smith Papyrus», the depiction of individual clinical
cases relies on preceding intentional pathological-anatomical investigations,
which were routine for the medical writer (1989RowlingJT). This anatomical
knowledge was also reinforced by ritual practices and the study of animal
anatomy. It is known that Egyptian physicians were involved in the inspection
of a bulls during slaughter to determine its fitness for a sacrificial meal,
a practice also observed in everyday life (1917ВикентьевВМ:45). Several depictions have been found on tomb
walls showing priests supervising the slaughter of animals. The educated
priesthood participating in sacrifices may have been more inclined toward
formulating anatomical and physiological observations (2020BlomstedtP:62).
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3 And they
fulfilled for him forty days; for so they fulfil the days of those that are
embalmed; and the Egyptians wept for him seventy days. |
Sacral-Chronological Numerical Code The similarity is evidenced in the use of the number seventy as a
symbol of completion, representing either the duration required to assemble
all constituent parts or the total fullness of a familial composition. |
Egypt The duration of the mummification process was not arbitrary but
followed a celestial archetype linked to the star Sirius (Sothis). The mummy of
Osiris was completed in seventy days; however, «various sources provide
different figures for the number of days during which Isis gathered Osiris's
remains. Collectively, the search and mummification spanned 70 days—the period
during which Sirius remains invisible» (2004РакИВ:81). Sothis was personified as a goddess whose movements governed the
Egyptian calendar. «In Egypt the star disappears below the horizon once a year for a
period of some seventy days; its reappearance in midsummer marked the
beginning of the annual inundation and the Egyptian year. The star’s rising
was also seen as a harbinger of the sunrise and therefore associated with
Horus in his solar aspect, occasionally specified as Horus in Sothis (Ḥrw jmj Spdt), Sothic Horus (Ḥrw Spdtj),
or Sharp Horus (Ḥrw Spd).» (2007AllenJP:441).
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3 And they
fulfilled for him forty days; for so they fulfil the days of those that are
embalmed; and the Egyptians wept for him seventy days.
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Technological and Chronological Regulation of Mummification The similarity is manifested in the precise correspondence of time
cycles (40 days of embalming and 70 days of mourning) to the actual stages of
chemical treatment of the body in natron and the astronomical period of the disappearance
of the star Sirius.
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Egypt The timeline for
mummification evolved throughout Egyptian history, reflecting both practical
and symbolic requirements. In the Middle and New Kingdoms, the body of the
deceased was typically placed in natron for 40 days, after which it was
«removed, washed, dried, and wrapped in bandages» made of linen fabric
(2003FletcherJ:119). In Late Period Egypt, up to the Ptolemaic era (664–30
BCE), the immersion of the body in natron lasted an average of 70 days
(2017ChapmanSL:13). The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) provided
a detailed account of this later tradition: «the body is placed in natron lye
for 70 days. However, it is not permitted to leave the body in the lye for
more than 70 days. After this 70-day period, having washed the body, they
wrap it in bandages of byssus cloth cut into strips and smear it with gum»
(1972Геродот:86). The materials used for medical dressings were identical to
those used in funerary rites. In Case № 14 of the «Edwin Smith Papyrus», the
application of linen bandages soaked in oil/fat and honey is recommended
(1930BreastedJH:256; sae.saw-leipzig.de). In a similar
manner, the fabric strips used to wrap the mummified body were impregnated.
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4 And when the
days of his mourning were past, Joseph spoke unto the house of Pharaoh,
saying. If now I have found grace in your eyes, speak, I pray you, in the
ears of Pharaoh, saying, … 6 And Pharaoh said. Go up, and bury thy father, as
he hath made thee swear. 7 And Joseph went up to bury his father, and there
went up with him all the servants of Pharaoh, the elders of his house, and
all the elders of the land of Egypt,
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The Borrowing the Word «Pharaoh» |
The term «Pharaoh» derives from an Egyptian word that
originally designated the palace or the residence of the king and his
administration. By the 12th Dynasty, it became associated with the three
wishes following the royal name (life, prosperity, health), and by the New
Kingdom, the term began to be used as a title for the king himself
(2021NoonanBJ:183).
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5 My father made
me swear, saying, Lo, I die; in my grave, which I have dug for me in the land
of Canaan, there shalt thou bury me : now therefore let me go up, I pray
thee, and I will bury my father, and return again. … 11 And when the
inhabitants of the land, the Canaanites, saw the mourning at the
thrashing-floor of Atad, they said, This is a grievous mourning to the
Egyptians ; wherefore the name of it was called Abel-mizrayim, which is
beyond the Jordan. … 13 And his sons carried him into the land of Canaan, and
buried him in the cave of the field of Machpelah, which field Abraham bought
for a possession, as a burying-place, of Ephron the Hittite, before Mamre.
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Ethnopolitical Isomorphism The presence of the term «Canaan»
is characteristic of diplomatic correspondence and legal archives of the
18th–15th centuries BCE.
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Levant The inhabitants
of Canaan are mentioned in a letter from Ashmad to Askudum (Mari archive, ARM
26/1 24): «Send me a hundred Canaanites <…> awaiting the arrival of the
Canaanites» (1988CharpinD:152–154). In another letter (ARM 26/1 140, Mari archive) from Nur-Addu
addressed to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Canaanite» is mentioned
(1988CharpinD:303–305). The Mari
archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the first half of the 18th
century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Furthermore, according to Na'aman, «It
is thus evident that in mid–18th century BCE people called
"Canaanites" lived south of the kingdom of Qatna [south of Syria], i.e., in the
same area where they are located in the Late Bronze Age.» (1994NaʾamanN:398).
Notably, «The earliest
occurrence of the geographical term [Canaan] outside the Old Testament is in
the Idrimi statue from Alalakh, which dates to about the middle of the
fifteenth century B.C.» (1961GibsonJC:217). Additionally, «The word Canaan comes from Hurrian Kinahhu,
which is attested by the documents from Nuzi (15th century BCE) and which is
supposed to be a Hurrian word for the colour of purple.» (1991LemcheNP:26).
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5 My father made
me swear, saying, Lo, I die; in my grave, which I have dug for me in the land
of Canaan, there shalt thou bury me : now therefore let me go up, I pray
thee, and I will bury my father, and return again. … 24 And Joseph said unto
his brothers, I shall die; but God will surely visit you, and bring you up
out of this land unto the land which he hath sworn to Abraham, to Isaac, and
to Jacob. 25 And Joseph caused the children of Israel to swear, saying, God
will surely visit you, and then shall ye carry up my bones from here. |
The Imperative of Posthumous Repatriation The similarity is manifested in the assertion of the immutable value
of burial in one's native land, which serves as a key condition for the
completion of the life cycle. |
Egypt In the Egyptian worldview, the return to one’s place of birth was not
merely a personal desire, but a spiritual necessity for a successful
transition to the afterlife. In the Middle Kingdom story «The Tale of the
Shipwrecked Sailor», the protagonist is reassured: «If you are brave and
control your heart, you shall embrace your children, you shall kiss your
wife, you shall see your home. It is better than everything else. You shall
reach home, you shall be there among your brothers. <…> You will reach
home in two months. You will embrace your children. You will flourish at
home, you will be buried» (2006LichtheimM:1.213–214). The theological weight
of this return is underscored in another translation, where the serpent
promises: «You shall set out on the return journey with them, and you shall
meet death [not in a distant foreign land, but] in your native city...»
(2007РакИ:190). The «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom) serves as the definitive
literary expression of this longing. The hero’s prayer emphasizes that burial
in foreign soil is a fate to be avoided at all costs: «Whichever god decreed
this flight, have mercy, bring me home! Surely you will let me see the place
in which my heart dwells! What is more important than that my corpse be
buried in the land in which I was born! Come to my aid! What if the happy
event should occur!» (2006LichtheimM:1.228). In his direct appeal to the
Pharaoh, Sinuhe equates the return with the highest possible blessing: «Grant
that my body be buried in the land in which I was born! What could be greater
or more desirable than this!» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:34). This
«instinct for the homeland» was seen as a universal law, applicable even to
the animal kingdom and the gods. In the «Myth of the Eye of the Sun» («The
Flight of Hathor to Nubia», «Leiden Papyrus», 2nd–3rd centuries CE), the god
Thoth exhorts Hathor-Tefnut: «Even a crocodile, when it grows old, leaves a
foreign land and comes to die in its own pool» (2007РакИ:69). Thoth
concludes: «of all that exists in the world, nothing is loved more than one’s
native land, that is, the place where you were born» (2004РакИВ:52). |
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6 And Pharaoh said.
Go up, and bury thy father, as he hath made thee swear.
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Etiquette and the Direct Sanction of the Monarch The similarity is manifested in the recording of the moment of
personal dialogue between the Pharaoh and a subordinate official to confirm
the legality of fulfilling a family duty as a state-significant commission. |
Egypt The transition from the Old to the Middle Kingdom marked a significant
shift in the relationship between the Pharaoh and the Egyptian nobility. «In the Middle
Kingdom, pharaohs already communicated with nomarchs and representatives of
the nobility, participated in military campaigns, and so forth, whereas in
the Old Kingdom, only the elite of the elite could behold the earthly deity»
(2004РакИВ:109). Despite this increased accessibility,
the ritual of an audience with the king remained a highly choreographed
display of divine majesty. In the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), there is a description of an audience
with the king: «When it
dawned, very early, they came to summon me. Ten men came and ten men went to
usher me into the palace. My forehead touched the ground between the
sphinxes, and the royal children stood in the gateway to meet me. The
courtiers who usher through the forecourt set me on the way to the
audience-hall. I found his majesty on the great throne in a kiosk of gold.
Stretched out on my belly, I did not know myself before him, while this god
greeted me pleasantly. <…> Then the royal daughters were brought
in, and his majesty said to the queen: "Here is Sinuhe, come as an
Asiatic, a product of nomads!"» (2006LichtheimM:1.231,232). This culture of royal service was
often commemorated in biographical texts as a mark of supreme honor. «In the
Old and Middle Kingdoms, people loved to recount the execution of royal
commissions and significant deeds, often citing documents, especially royal
letters» (1915ТураевБА:47).
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8 And all the
house of Joseph, and his brothers, and his father's house ; only their little
ones, and their flocks, and their herds, they left behind in the land of
Goshen. |
Geographic and Administrative Localization The similarity is found in the mention of the specific toponym
«Goshen», identified as a borderland—a region in the eastern part of the Nile
Delta suitable for settlement and animal husbandry.
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Egypt A.H. Gardiner
(1924) suggested that the biblical locality «Goshen» should be sought in the
eastern Nile Delta. According to E. Naville, the land of «Goshen» (Gesem) was
located in the east, «not far» from the country. Furthermore, «at the western
entrance to the Goshen Valley, with its capital Pe(r)-sopd(u) («House of
Sopdu»; also called «House of the Sycamore»), modern Saft el-Hinna», was
located the twentieth nome of the Delta, later designated as the «Arabian
nome» (2021МюллерМ:158). Topographical references to this region also appear
in literary works; specifically, in the «Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom),
it is stated: «I crossed Maaty near Sycamore; I reached Isle-of-Snefru»
(2006LichtheimM:1.224).
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9 And there went
up with him both chariots and horsemen ; and the encampment was very great. |
Technological and Lexical Acculturation Similarity is manifested in the mention of the chariot procession as
an obligatory attribute of high social status, which records the historical
moment of the integration of horse breeding and chariots into Egyptian
culture in the middle of the second millennium BCE.
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Egypt Regarding the early presence of equids in Egypt, a horse skeleton
excavated in Buhen, in the southern Nile Valley, is dated approximately to
2055–1650 BCE (2014TatomirR). Furthermore,
the document known as «Be a Scribe» (Middle Kingdom?) implies the
presence of horses, stating:
«The poor man is turned into a driver – and the stable manager supervises
him» (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ:248). Similarly, in the «Admonitions
of Ipuwer» (attributed by V.V. Struve to the Second Intermediate Period), we
find an indirect reference to horses: «Behold, he who had no team now
possesses a herd» (1978КоростовцевМА:236). In the
«Admonitions of Ipuwer» (attributed by V.V. Struve to the Second Intermediate
Period), we find an indirect reference to horses: «Behold, he who had no team
now possesses a herd» (1978КоростовцевМА:236). The light chariot
appeared in Egypt only during the Hyksos period (2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC). Under
Hyksos rule, the inhabitants of Avaris and the surrounding territories formed
a sophisticated urban society engaged in extensive trade—particularly
maritime commerce—and the introduction of horses and chariots into Egypt
(2021BietakM_RensburgA).
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9 And there went
up with him both chariots and horsemen ; and the encampment was very great. |
Zooarchaeological and Chronological Parallelism A shared period of the spread of horses, chariots, and wagons in the
Near East. |
Mesopotamia,
Anatolia The history of
wheeled transport in the region dates back to the third millennium BCE. Wagons and horses
are depicted on the Sumerian «Standard of Ur», created during the Early
Dynastic period, which
flourished between 2550–2400 BCE (2003AruzJ_WallenfelsR). Subsequently,
the light chariot became widespread in the Eastern Mediterranean and
throughout the Near East in the second millennium BCE
(2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC). The importance of these vehicles is reflected in
royal correspondence; for instance, in a letter from the royal archives of
Mari (ARM 26/2 285), we learn of a shortage of cedar wood specifically
intended for chariots used in rituals (1988CharpinD_LafontB:15–18). The Mari archives
also provide insight into the livestock trade and military logistics of the
era. In letter ARM 26/1 47, it is reported that Askudum divided the cattle
and horses collected from the Canaanites into organized herds
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:190–199, archibab.fr). Furthermore, in letter
ARM 26/2 533, the author writes about ongoing negotiations for the supply of
white Anatolian horses (1988CharpinD_LafontB:526–527, archibab.fr). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian source, dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM:106). Legal codes of
the period further emphasize the value of these animals. According to the
«Hittite Laws» (17th–12th centuries BCE): «§ 71 If anyone finds a (stray) ox,
horse, mule (or) donkey, he shall drive it to the king’s gate»
(1997HoffnerJrHA:80).
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10 And they came
to the thrashing-floor of Atad, which is beyond Jordan, and they held there a
great and very sore lamentation ; and he made for his father a mourning of
seven days.
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Numerological Correspondence In both traditions, the number
«seven» is used as a sacred marker of the absolute completeness of an action.
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Egypt Regarding Egyptian mythology, the Egyptian concept of the
Seven Hathors is well known: «A complex form of the goddess Hathor’s cult;
evidently, her simultaneous incarnation into seven hypostases» (2004РакИВ:286). Hathor («Enclosure of Horus»), the wife of
the god Horus, represents the principle of joy, feminine love, and motherhood.
Furthermore, in the Pyramid of Unis (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353–2323 BCE), Recitation
№ 223 states: «…who swallowed
his seven uraei and his seven neckbones came into being, [who governs] his
seven Enneads and hears the sovereign’s case.» (2007AllenJP:60). In the «Coffin Texts» (2134–2040 BCE),
Spell № 213, reads: «I eat of red emmer, and seven loaves are in the sky in On
with Re seven portions are [on earth] with Geb, seven portions are with
Osiris.» (1973FaulknerRO:170). Similarly, in the «Book of the Dead» it is stated: «I have made meat
offerings unto the seven kine and unto their bull.» (1901BudgeEAW:481).
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10 And they came
to the thrashing-floor of Atad, which is beyond Jordan, and they held there a
great and very sore lamentation ; and he made for his father a mourning of
seven days. |
Numerological Correspondence In both traditions, the number
«seven» is used as a sacred marker of the absolute completeness of an action.
|
Mesopotamia In the Akkadian «Epic of
Gilgamesh», the numeral seven is mentioned repeatedly: «Six days and seven nights came the wind and flood,
the storm flattening the land. When the seventh day arrived, the storm was
pounding, the flood was a war-struggling with itself like a woman writhing
(in labor).» (1989KovacsMG:101). The text further records: «When a seventh day arrived I sent forth a dove and
released it. <…> Seven and seven cult vessels I put in place, and (into
the fire) underneath (or: into their bowls) I poured reeds, cedar, and
myrtle.» (1989KovacsMG:145). The standard version of the «Epic of Gilgamesh»
was first written in the Old Babylonian period (1800–1600 BCE)
(1989KovacsMG:xxii). The Atrahasis myth tells that at a
meeting of the gods, the god «We-ila, who
had personality, They slaughtered in their assembly. From his flesh and blood
Nintu mixed clay.» From this mixture, «Seven produced males, [Seven] produced
females.» (1999LambertWG_CivilM:59–63). The «Myth of Atrahasis» was composed
ca. 1600 BCE (1989KovacsMG:xxvi).
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10 And they came
to the thrashing-floor of Atad, which is beyond Jordan, and they held there a
great and very sore lamentation ; and he made for his father a mourning of
seven days. 11 And when the inhabitants of the land, the Canaanites, saw the
mourning at the thrashing-floor of Atad, they said, This is a grievous
mourning to the Egyptians ; wherefore the name of it was called
Abel-mizrayim, which is beyond the Jordan.
|
Topographic Authenticity The identified spatial similarity between the biblical narrative and
the physical geography of the region confirms the historical rootedness of
the text in the actual landscape of Palestine.
|
Levant The geographical description of the region provides a realistic
backdrop for the movements of the patriarchs. The Jordan originates in the
Anti-Lebanon Mountains at altitudes up to 3000 meters. Further, the river
flows south, forming the Sea of Galilee, upon exiting which it flows through
the Jordan Valley, surrounded by the Judean (Judeo-Samarian), Gilead, and Abarim
mountains. Ultimately, the stream discharges into the Dead Sea. The distance
traversed by the river between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea is
approximately 105 km (2024АрхиповСВ:80).
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13 And his sons
carried him into the land of Canaan, and buried him in the cave of the field
of Machpelah, which field Abraham bought for a possession, as a
burying-place, of Ephron the Hittite, before Mamre. |
Memorial-Legal Consolidation A profound structural similarity in the existential priority placed
upon the acquisition of a permanent, legally recognized funerary estate to
ensure the continuity of memory and the preservation of sacred burial space.
|
Egypt The construction of a tomb in Egypt was not only a religious act but a
highly regulated state and legal process. In the «Story of Sinuhe»
(Middle Kingdom), it is stated: «The dance of the mrow-dancers is done at the
door of your tomb; the offering-list is read to you; sacrifice is made before
your offering-stone. Your tomb-pillars, made of white stone, are among (those
of) the royal children.» (2006LichtheimM:1:229–230). The involvement of specialized state guilds underlines the prestige
associated with these structures: «A stone pyramid was built for me in the
midst of the pyramids. The masons who build tombs constructed it. A master
draughtsman designed in it. A master sculptor carved in it. The overseers of
construction in the necropolis busied themselves with it. All the equipment
that is placed in a tomb-shaft was supplied. Mortuary priests were given me.
A funerary domain was made for me.» (2006LichtheimM:1:233). Furthermore, the legitimacy of the
tomb's ownership was a frequent theme in funerary inscriptions. It has
been observed that in the texts on the walls of Egyptian tombs, «nobles
constantly emphasize that it is their legal property, and that they have not
violated the rights of others» (1920ТураевБА:49).
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13 And his sons
carried him into the land of Canaan, and buried him in the cave of the field
of Machpelah, which field Abraham bought for a possession, as a
burying-place, of Ephron the Hittite, before Mamre. |
Ethnogenetic Verification Fixation of the presence of Indo-European
groups (Hittites) in the Levant as a consequence of a migratory wave element.
|
Levant In approximately 1800 BCE, a
case of the presence of a Lycian [Hittite] from Western Asia Minor was
recorded in Byblos, Phoenicia (1966KitchenKA).
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15 And when
Joseph's brothers saw that their father was dead, they said, Peradventure
Joseph may now hate us ; and then he would certainly requite us all the evil
which we have done unto him. 16 And they sent word unto Joseph, saying. Thy
father did command before his death, saying, 17 So shall ye say unto Joseph,
forgive, I pray thee, the trespass of thy brothers, and their sin ; for evil
have they done unto thee : and now, we pray thee, forgive the trespass of the
servants of the God of thy father ; and Joseph wept when they spoke unto him.
18 And his brothers also went and fell down before him; and they said.
Behold, we will be thy servants.
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Political Climate of Suspicion The similarity is expressed in the description of a shared atmosphere
of extreme distrust, where even kinship ties are subjected to rigorous
verification and viewed as a potential instrument of conspiracy or espionage.
|
Egypt The political philosophy of the Middle Kingdom often reflected a
tension between the necessity of isolation and the ideal of the benevolent
leader. In the «Instruction of King Amenemhat» (12th Dynasty), we read:
«Beware of subjects who are nobodies, Of whose plotting one is not aware.
Trust not a brother, know not a friend, Make no intimates, it is worthless.
When you lie down, guard your heart yourself, For no man has adherents on the
day of woe.» (2006LichtheimM:1.136).
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19 And Joseph
said unto them, Fear not; for am I in the place of God? 20 But as for you,
though ye thought evil against me, God meant it unto good; in order to bring
to pass, as it is this day, to save alive a numerous people. 21 Now therefore
fear ye not, I will support you, and your little ones ; and he comforted
them, and spoke kindly unto them.
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The Ethical Code of the Ruler The similarity is manifested in the realization of the concept of a
merciful ruler guided by the principle of state magnanimity and concern for
the welfare of subjects and «inner circle».
|
Egypt In the
instructions emphasized that the stability of the throne depended on the
king’s character and his ability to inspire loyalty through grace. In the
«Instruction Addressed to King Merikare» (Middle Kingdom), it is said: «Make
people come [to you] through your good nature. A wretch is who desires the
land [of his neighbor], a fool is who covets what others possess»
(2006LichtheimM:1.100). This theme of
royal virtue as a strategic and moral necessity is consistent throughout
different periods: The Old Kingdom
Precedent: The «Instruction of Ptahhotep» (6th Dynasty) established the
ethical foundation for leadership: «If thou be a leader, as one directing the
conduct of the multitude, endeavour always to be gracious, that thine own
conduct be without defect» (1908BattiscombeG:43). The
Herakleopolitan Tradition: In the «Instruction to Merikare» (11th Dynasty),
the father advises his son: «Remember: magnanimity is the ornament of a
king.» He further adds: «Let everyone from your inner circle prosper on the
earth» (1978КоростовцевМА:212,217).
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22 And Joseph
dwelt in Egypt, he, and his father's house ; and Joseph lived one hundred and
ten years. … 26 So Joseph died, being one hundred and ten years old ; and
they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.
|
The Ideal Life Cycle The similarity is manifested in the mention of the age of one hundred
and ten years as a sacred and socially sanctioned norm of longevity,
testifying to supreme divine favor toward an individual and one who possesses
magic.
|
Egypt In the Egyptian
tradition, reaching the age of 110 was considered the ultimate mark of divine
favor and a life lived in accordance with Maat (order and justice). In
Ancient Egyptian texts, «an ideal lifespan of 110 years is frequently
mentioned» (2001TaylorJH). This specific number appears across various
literary genres, from wisdom tales to royal praises. The Middle
Kingdom: In the «Tales of the Sons of Pharaoh Khufu», it is stated that the
magician «is a commoner named Djedi, he lives in the village of Djed-Snefru.
He is one hundred and ten years of age» (1978КоростовцевМА:28). In another
translation of the «Three Tales of Wonder» (Hyksos period), the description
of Djedi’s vitality at this age is even more vivid: «He is a man of a hundred
and ten years who eats five hundred loaves of bread, half an ox for meat, and
drinks one hundred jugs of beer to this very day» (2006LichtheimM:1.217–218). The New Kingdom:
In the «Papyrus Anastasi III», the formulaic nature of this lifespan is
preserved in a formal wish to «live for 110 years» (2001КоростовцевМА:49). The
fulfillment of such a life often concluded with the king’s favor, ensuring an
honorable transition to the afterlife. In the epilogue of the «Story of
Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom), the hero reflects on this royal grace: «My statue
was overlaid with gold, its skirt with electrum. It was his majesty who
ordered it made. There is no commoner for whom the like has been done. I was
in the favor of the king, until the day of landing came»
(2006LichtheimM:1.233).
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22 And Joseph
dwelt in Egypt, he, and his father's house ; and Joseph lived one hundred and
ten years. … 26 So Joseph died, being one hundred and ten years old ; and
they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in Egypt.
|
Chronological
Hyperbolization The use of anomalously large
numbers serves as a literary device to denote the antiquity of the era and
the sacred status of the described characters in both traditions. |
Mesopotamia In Mesopotamia,
historical figures were attributed legendary longevity. There existed a list
of kings compiled by Sumerian scribes at the end of the second millennium
BCE. For example, the kings of «the first dynasty after the deluge also
reigned for an average of a thousand years, and subsequently for two hundred
years each» (1961ВуллиЛ:15).
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25 And Joseph
caused the children of Israel to swear, saying, God will surely visit you,
and then shall ye carry up my bones from here. |
Onomastic Authenticity The identified structural similarity in the use of the theophoric
element «El» confirms that the biblical text belongs to the authentic Near
Eastern naming tradition of the early 2nd millennium BCE.
|
Mesopotamia The theophoric
element «El» in personal names is frequently encountered in the documents of
the Mari archives. An example is a letter (ARM 2 23) from Ibal-pi-El to his
lord Zimri-Lim (1988CharpinD:271). Furthermore, in a letter (ARM 26/1 140) from Nur-Addu addressed
to Zimri-Lim, «Yakhsib-El, the Hanaean» is mentioned (1988CharpinD:303–305). Additionally, Yeskit-El, in a
letter (ARM 26/2 386), informs his lord Zimri-Lim of the fall of Larsa
(1988CharpinD_LafontB:205). Yasim-El, in a letter (ARM 26/2 403-bis) to his
brother Shunukhra-Khalu, recounts his illness (1988CharpinD_LafontB:257). The Mari archive, a key Mesopotamian
source, dates to the first half of the 18th century BCE
(1956Munn-RankinJM:106).
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26 So Joseph
died, being one hundred and ten years old ; and they embalmed him, and he was
put in a coffin in Egypt.
|
The Borrowing of the Word «Ark»
|
Egypt The term used for the receptacle of the deceased is an Egyptian
borrowing meaning «coffin» or «chest», as well as «shrine» or «chamber»
(2021NoonanBJ:217). The significance of the coffin is central to the Osirian
myth, as recorded by later historians. According to Plutarch (1st–2nd
century CE), through Set's trickery, Osiris «stepped into the coffin and lay
down. Then the conspirators ran up, slammed the lid shut, and having fastened
it from the outside with nails and sealed it with molten lead, they dragged
the coffin to the river and cast it into the sea at Tanis, through the mouth»
(1996Плутарх:3). The journey of
the sarcophagus symbolizes the transition between life, death, and rebirth. According
to legend, as a result of Set's conspiracy, Osiris was enclosed in a
sarcophagus that was thrown into the river and subsequently reached the sea.
«The sea waves carried the sarcophagus with Osiris’s dead body to the shores
of Byblos; the surf cast it onto the land, and the sarcophagus came to rest
upon a young sprout of a tamarisk tree» (2007РакИ:97).
|
Physicians of Ancient Greece and
Israel
Ancient Greek physicians are
mentioned in the second book of Homer's «Iliad» (Ὅμηρος. Ἰλιάς, ca. 8th century
BCE): «And they that held Oechalia, the city of Eurytus the Oechalian, over
these again led the two sons of Asclepius, the skilled healers Podaleirius and
Machaon» (1960Гомер:2.730–732). The reputation of the medical profession in
antiquity often crossed cultural boundaries, with Egypt serving as the primary
benchmark. Regarding the high level of Egyptian medicine, we read in the fourth
book of the Odyssey (Ὅμηρος. Ὀδύσσεια, ca. 8th century BCE): «Such
cunning drugs had the daughter of Zeus, drugs of healing, which Polydamna, the
wife of Thon, had given her, a woman of Egypt, for there the earth, the giver
of grain, bears greatest store of drugs, many that are healing when mixed, and
many that are baneful; there every man is a physician, wise above human kind;
for they are of the race of Paeeon» (Note: Paeeon is an ancient healing deity)
(1981Гомер:4.228–232). Physicians from among the Hebrews did not achieve
prominence until the Middle Ages (1947CastiglioniA:49).
Gloss
11 And when the inhabitants of the
land, the Canaanites, saw the mourning at the thrashing-floor of Atad, they
said, This is a grievous mourning to the Egyptians ; wherefore the name of
it was called Abel-mizrayim, which is beyond the Jordan.
These explanations may date back to the first half of the first millennium BCE. The practice of compiling explanatory glosses has deep roots in ancient Egyptian scientific texts. The early explanations date back to the first half of the second millennium BCE. For example, numerous glosses are contained in the Edwin Smith Papyrus (1650–1550 BCE), compiled by a scribe presumably from the Hyksos period (1930BreastedJH; sae.saw-leipzig.de).
(The conclusion compiled by the AI agent, with our minor changes)
Preliminary Conclusion to the Analysis of Genesis Chapter 50
Sacred and Technological Ritual of Immortality
The textual description of Jacob's embalming
(Genesis 50:2-3) reveals a profound archetypal similarity to the Egyptian cult
of Osiris, where the preservation of the body is a prerequisite for the return
of the «Ba,» as documented in sources since the Old Kingdom (3rd millennium
BCE). The mention of this procedure as an act of Joseph’s filial piety mirrors
the mythological roles of Anubis and Horus, legitimizing the patriarch's
actions within the framework of Egyptian sacred tradition. This layer of the
text demonstrates precision in conveying theological concepts of immortality
characteristic of Egypt throughout the entire Dynastic period, including the
Middle and New Kingdoms (c. 2000–1000 BCE).
Institutionalization of Medical Service
The mention of «servant-physicians» in Genesis
50:2 aligns with the Egyptian administrative model where specialized medical
professionals were integrated into the state hierarchy and the «House of Life.»
Historical evidence, such as the title sš nsw wr swnw and the 17th-Dynasty
records of Menna, confirms that high-ranking officials had direct command over
medical staff for both clinical and ritual (embalming) duties. This
institutional structure, well-documented from the Old Kingdom through the New
Kingdom (c. 2600–1200 BCE), suggests that the biblical narrator possessed an
accurate understanding of the Egyptian bureaucracy regarding the intersection
of medicine and the funerary cult.
Post-mortem Pathological Examination
The advanced anatomical expertise attributed to
the «servant-physicians» in Genesis 50:2 correlates with the empirical
tradition of Egyptian medical writers, such as the author of the Edwin Smith
Papyrus (c. 1650–1550 BCE), who conducted routine pathological investigations.
The involvement of physicians and priests in post-mortem examinations,
including the veterinary inspection of sacrificial animals (documented since
the Old Kingdom), underscores a level of specialized knowledge necessary for
the complex mummification process described in the biblical text. This
intersection of clinical observation and ritual practice suggests that the
narrative of Genesis 50 reflects a period when Egyptian medical science was at
its peak, particularly during the Middle Kingdom and early New Kingdom (c.
18th–16th centuries BCE).
Sacral-Chronological Numerical Code
The mention of the seventy-day period in
Genesis 50:3 reflects a profound alignment with the Egyptian Sothic cycle,
specifically the 70-day invisibility of the star Sirius (Sothis) which
symbolized the transition between death and rebirth. This numerical code,
documented as early as the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350–2175 BCE) and emphasized in
the Osiris myth, identifies the mourning period for Jacob not merely as a local
custom, but as a cosmologically synchronized ritual of completion. The integration
of this specific duration into the Hebrew narrative suggests the author’s
exposure to Egyptian astronomical and theological frameworks prevalent during
the Middle and New Kingdoms (c. 2000–1200 BCE).
Technological and Chronological Regulation of
Mummification
The chronological framework of 40 days for
embalming and 70 days for mourning in Genesis 50:3 provides a precise technical
match with Egyptian mummification protocols, specifically those prevalent
during the Middle and New Kingdoms (c. 2040–1070 BCE). The 40-day period
corresponds to the intensive chemical dehydration of the body in natron, while
the 70-day total duration aligns with the broader ritual cycle and the
astronomical disappearance of Sirius. Furthermore, the use of impregnated linen
bandages, as described in the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1650–1550 BCE), confirms
that the biblical account reflects the specific medical and technological
standards of the mid-second millennium BCE, rather than the extended 70-day
natron immersion typical of the Late Period (after 664 BCE) described by
Herodotus.
Technological
and Chronological Regulation of Mummification
The
technical timeframe of 40 days for embalming and 70 days for mourning in
Genesis 50:3 precisely mirrors the mummification protocols of the Middle and
New Kingdoms (c. 2040–1070 BCE), where the 40-day stage represented the active
chemical dehydration in natron. The biblical text's linguistic shift toward
using the term «Pharaoh» as a direct title for the monarch further anchors this
narrative in the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), the period when this metonymic
usage transitioned from referring to the royal palace to the person of the king
himself. This synthesis of technical accuracy—matching the Edwin Smith Papyrus
(c. 1650 BCE)—and specific linguistic evolution suggests a composition date
contemporaneous with the zenith of Egyptian administrative and funerary
culture.
Ethnopolitical
Isomorphism
The
systematic use of the geographic and ethno-political term «Canaan» in Genesis
50:11 provides a critical chronological anchor, as this terminology aligns
precisely with diplomatic and legal archives from the 18th to the 15th
centuries BCE. Evidence from the Mari archives (c. 1800–1750 BCE) and the
Idrimi statue (c. 15th century BCE) confirms that «Canaan» was an established
international designation for the Levant during the Middle and Late Bronze
Ages. This specific nomenclature reflects an authentic geopolitical reality of
the second millennium BCE, predating the shifts in regional terminology that
occurred after the Iron Age transition.
The
Imperative of Posthumous Repatriation
The
persistent emphasis on Jacob’s burial in Canaan (Genesis 50:5, 13) reflects a
core Egyptian cultural value of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1782 BCE), where
death in a foreign land was viewed as a spiritual catastrophe. Literary
parallels from «The Story of Sinuhe» and «The Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor»
demonstrate that the «happy event» of being buried in one's native soil was
considered the ultimate fulfillment of a successful life cycle. This ethical
and existential imperative, which transcends mere tribal tradition, aligns the
biblical narrative with the high-status Egyptian literary motifs of the early
second millennium BCE, emphasizing the necessity of returning to one's origins
for a «proper» transition to the afterlife.
Etiquette
and the Direct Sanction of the Monarch
The formal
interaction between Joseph and the Egyptian court regarding his family's burial
request (Genesis 50:4–6) accurately mirrors the documented court etiquette of
the Middle Kingdom (c. 2040–1782 BCE). Unlike the inaccessible «earthly deity»
of the Old Kingdom, the Pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom—as seen in «The Story of
Sinuhe»—engaged in direct dialogue with high-ranking officials and regulated
their movements through formal petitions and royal sanctions. The biblical
description of Joseph’s reliance on the «House of Pharaoh» and the subsequent
royal decree aligns with the historical transition toward a more integrated
administrative communication, providing a strong contextual link to the Middle
Bronze Age (c. 2000–1600 BCE).
Geographic
and Administrative Localization
The
geographic localization of «Goshen» in Genesis 50:8 as a distinct pastoral
borderland aligns with the historical and archaeological identification of the
eastern Nile Delta (the 20th nome, later known as the Arabian nome). The
mention of specific landmarks like the «Sycamore» in both the biblical text and
«The Story of Sinuhe» (Middle Kingdom, c. 19th century BCE) suggests an
authentic administrative familiarity with the topography of the Wadi Tumilat
region. This precise toponymy and its association with a semi-autonomous
pastoral population characterize the frontier policy of the Middle and early
New Kingdoms (c. 2000–1400 BCE), prior to the large-scale urbanization of the
Delta in later periods.
Technological
and Lexical Acculturation
The
description of a funerary procession involving chariots and horsemen in Genesis
50:9 serves as a precise terminus post quem, synchronizing the narrative with
the military and social revolution of the Second Intermediate Period and early
New Kingdom (c. 1700–1550 BCE). While horse remains at Buhen (c. 2000 BCE) and
references in the Mari Archives (18th century BCE) confirm the early presence
of equines in the Near East, the specific integration of the light chariot into
Egyptian state ceremony is a hallmark of the Hyksos and post-Hyksos eras. This
technological parallelism, documented in both the Admonitions of Ipuwer and the
Hittite Laws, anchors the text in a mid-second millennium BCE context where the
chariot had become the definitive symbol of high-status administrative
mobility.
Numerological
Correspondence
The use of
the numeral seven as a marker of ritual and cosmological completeness in
Genesis 50:10 (the seven-day mourning at the threshing floor of Atad) reflects
a widespread Near Eastern and Egyptian sacral-mathematical tradition
established by the 3rd millennium BCE. Parallels in the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350
BCE) and the Coffin Texts (c. 2100 BCE) utilize the «sevenfold» structure to
denote divine satiety and legal sovereignty, while the Epic of Gilgamesh (c.
1800–1600 BCE) and the Atrahasis Myth employ the same septenary cadence to
define the boundaries of life-altering events and transitions. This shared
numerological code suggests that the 50th chapter of Genesis was formulated
within a cultural milieu where «seven» served as the standard liturgical unit
for the finalization of a sacred act, particularly during the Middle Bronze
Age.
Memorial-Legal
Consolidation and Ethnogenetic Verification
The
emphasis in Genesis 50:13 on the Machpelah cave as a «possession of a burial
place» aligns with the high-status Egyptian legal tradition of the Middle
Kingdom (c. 2040–1782 BCE), where the acquisition of a funerary estate was a
documented prerequisite for existential security. Parallels in «The Story of
Sinuhe» emphasize that a «funerary domain» was not merely a grave but a legally
protected, stone-built infrastructure integrated into the royal necropolis
system. Furthermore, the presence of Hittite/Indo-European groups in the
Levant, as mentioned in the biblical narrative, finds historical support in the
migratory waves documented in Byblos (c. 1800 BCE), confirming a geopolitical
landscape consistent with the Middle Bronze Age.
Political
Climate and the Ethical Code of the Ruler
The
psychological tension between Joseph and his brothers in Genesis 50:15–21
reflects the political climate of suspicion characteristic of the Middle
Kingdom (12th Dynasty), as articulated in the Instruction of King Amenemhat I,
where even fraternal ties are viewed through the lens of potential betrayal.
Conversely, Joseph’s response embodies the Egyptian ethical ideal of the «merciful
ruler» (magnanimity as the «ornament of a king»), a central theme in the
Instruction of King Merikare and the Maxims of Ptahhotep. This
dualism—balancing extreme administrative vigilance with state-sanctioned benevolence
toward one's «inner circle»—anchors the narrative’s moral and political
philosophy in the established literary and didactic traditions of the early
second millennium BCE (c. 2000–1600 BCE).
Psychological
Parallel
The
psychological interiority of Joseph and his brothers (Genesis 50:15–21) aligns
with the ancient Egyptian «theology of the heart» (ib/haty), where the heart
functions as the primary seat of rational thought, memory, and moral agency.
This conceptualization, documented from the Pyramid Texts (c. 2350 BCE) to the
Middle Kingdom «Instructions» (c. 19th century BCE), defines the heart as an
independent entity capable of being «tested,» «comforted,» or «poured out.» The
biblical narrator’s emphasis on Joseph «speaking to the hearts» of his brothers
reflects a sophisticated literary technique rooted in the sapiential traditions
of the second millennium BCE, where emotional reconciliation and administrative
discernment are governed by the heart’s alignment with divine order (Maat).
The
Ideal Life Cycle
The
attribution of a 110-year lifespan to Joseph (Genesis 50:22, 26) constitutes a
definitive cultural and chronological marker, as this specific number served as
the canonical Egyptian symbol for a «perfect life» and divine favor. Evidence
from the Middle Kingdom (Papyrus Westcar, c. 18th–16th centuries BCE) and the
New Kingdom (Papyrus Anastasi III) identifies 110 years as the reward for one
who lives according to Maat (truth/order) and possesses spiritual wisdom. This «Egyptian
longevity» stands in stark contrast to the Mesopotamian tradition of
chronological hyperbolization, where legendary figures were assigned thousands
of years, further confirming that the author of Genesis 50 was operating within
an Egyptian-centric sapiential framework of the second millennium BCE.
Onomastic
Authenticity and Lexical Borrowing
The use of
the theophoric element «El» in the naming conventions of the patriarchal era
finds direct onomastic parallels in the Mari archives (c. 18th century BCE),
where names such as Ibal-pi-El and Yakhsib-El reflect a verified West Semitic
linguistic stratum of the Middle Bronze Age. Furthermore, the biblical term for
«ark» (coffin/chest) in Genesis 50:26 is a specific Egyptian loanword,
conceptually and terminologically linked to the funerary «chest» of the Osiris
myth. The convergence of authentic 18th-century BCE Amorite onomastics with
specialized Egyptian mortuary vocabulary reinforces the conclusion that the
narrative was shaped by an author possessing precise knowledge of both
Levantine and Nilotic cultures during the second millennium BCE.
General
Conclusion
The
multidisciplinary research conducted herein demonstrates a profound isomorphism
between the biblical text of Genesis 50 and the historical realities of the
Bronze Age, substantiated by the following key arguments:
Techno-Medical
Precision: The description of the embalming process (specifically the 40-day
dehydration and the 70-day ritual cycle) and the mention of «servant-physicians»
(staff members of the House of Life) align perfectly with Egyptian protocols of
the Middle and New Kingdoms, as documented in the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c. 1650
BCE).
Geopolitical
Synchronization: The systematic use of onomastics featuring the theophoric
element «El» and the toponym «Canaan» finds direct parallels in the Mari
archives (18th century BCE) and the Idrimi statue (15th century BCE),
reflecting the authentic international lexicon of that era.
Cultural
and Linguistic Markers: The term «ark» (’ārōn) as an Egyptian lexical borrowing
and the sacred lifespan of 110 years (the quintessential ideal of longevity in
Egyptian literature, e.g., Papyrus Westcar) indicate that the author was deeply
integrated into the Egyptian courtly and religious milieu.
Technological
Benchmarking: The inclusion of a chariot procession within the funerary rites
serves as a precise terminus post quem, pointing to the period following Hyksos
influence (17th–16th centuries BCE), when equines and light chariots became
integral to state ceremonial protocols.
Final
Verdict
Based on
the synthesis of all presented factors—ranging from specific
pathological-anatomical knowledge to the administrative etiquette associated
with the titular use of «Pharaoh»—the dating of the core narrative of Genesis
Chapter 50 is established between the 18th and 15th centuries BCE (the Middle
Kingdom and the early New Kingdom).
The text exhibits a level of technical and cultural detail that would be unattainable for a later redactor of the First or Second Temple periods, who would inevitably introduce anachronisms (e.g., regarding the specific duration of natron immersion or the professional status of physicians). Consequently, Genesis 50 stands as an authentic Late Bronze Age historical-literary document, preserving unique evidence of the integration of Semitic patriarchs into the Egyptian state system.
Sumer (c. 3300 – before 1900 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Kingdom of Egypt (c. 2543 – c. 2120 BCE) britannica.com
The Third Dynasty of Ur (22nd – 21st cent. BCE) britannica.com
The First Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 2118 – c. 1980 BCE) britannica.com
The Old Babylonian period of Egypt (2000 – 1595 BCE) onlinelibrary.wiley.com
The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1980 – c. 1760 BCE) britannica.com
The Second Intermediate period of Egypt (c. 1759 – c. 1539 BCE) britannica.com
The New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1539 – c. 1077 BCE) britannica.com
Authors of the article
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Joensuu, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, email: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Article history
March 24, 2026 - online version of the article published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. The Book of Genesis as a Great Compilation of Texts and Meanings from the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt: A Pilot Culturological, Medical, Archaeological, and Textological Examination of the Legends versus Traditional Attribution. Chapter 50. About round ligament of femur. March 24, 2026.
Note
Keywords
Genesis Protograph, Bereshit Protograph, Hyksos-era Scriptorium, Ligamentum Teres, Ligamentum Capitis Femoris, Minoan Eruption Impact, Bronze Age, Middle Egyptian Origin, Cross-cultural Codification, Ancient Medicine, Biblical Chronology
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