Book manuscript: Arkhipov S.V. Medical Record: The Contribution of a Middle Bronze Age Egyptian Physician to the Book of Genesis. Kyrö: Author’s Edition, 2026. – 312 pp. – 2 tables. – Bibliographical references: 856 entries. play.google.com , books.google.com
Chapter 3
Dating of the Medical Record
During the eruption of the Santorini volcano on the island of Thera, the 13th Dynasty was coming to an end in Egypt, and the Hyksos were present (2020ManningSW_TegelW). The Egyptian concept of "Hyksos" is not strictly defined. Proposed readings include "rulers of foreign lands", including those originating from Asia, as well as "foreign kings from Phoenicia" and "shepherd-kings" (1964WaddellWG; 2006SchneiderT). In the Book of Genesis, we read how the sons of Jacob, born in Northern Mesopotamia and the southern Levant, tell Pharaoh about themselves: "Thy servants are shepherds, both we, and also our fathers" (Gen. 47:3). We suggest that Jacob's family migrated to Egypt during the reign of Sheshi, the second pharaoh of the 15th Dynasty (the Great Hyksos). Its founder was Salitis, who occupied the throne in Avaris for 19 years, starting around 1640 BCE (2002BunsonMR). Thus, Sheshi ascended the throne approximately in the 1620s BCE, around 1621 BCE. Apparently, it was at that time that he appointed Jacob's son Joseph to the second most important position in the country (Gen. 41:40, 44). Asian dignitaries were present in the region of Avaris at the end of the 12th Dynasty and later. This is confirmed by fragments of a statue similar to the one excavated in northwestern Syria at Ebla (1996BietakM). It has been noted that both Joseph and the chief cupbearer address Pharaoh exclusively in the third person: "maintaining such a nuance in the narrative seems to suggest that the tale in its essence was created, most likely, precisely in an Egyptian milieu" (2000ТантлевскийИР).
In the text of our primary source, there are words of God that could have served as a doctrine for the Hyksos rulers: "Unto thy seed have I given this land, from the river of Egypt unto the great river, the river Euphrates [Perat]" (Gen. 15:18). Abraham heard this prophecy in a dream (Gen. 15:12). For the elder of a small nomadic tribe herding livestock in the southern Levant, boundaries stretching from the Mediterranean Sea to the waters of the Red Sea – that is, the territory of the Sinai Peninsula – would be more appropriate. A scope reaching all the way to the Euphrates is fitting only for the Pharaohs of Egypt, and naturally not for Hittite or Mesopotamian kings, whose claims would be expected to be even grander.
The verses describing the miraculous elevation of Joseph resemble a folk tale. In everyday life, a ruler is not as gullible as portrayed in the Book of Genesis. A former slave, and moreover a prisoner, was brought before Pharaoh (Gen. 41:14). A foreign man temporarily released from prison makes predictions that could only be verified seven years later (Gen. 41:29–30). Naturally, the reluctance to return to the dungeon activated his rhetorical skills. There was no proof of his correctness. The king took the newly emerged, eloquent "prophet" at his word, and the courtiers expressed no doubts (Gen. 41:38). The scene resembles a session of mass hypnosis. During the spectacle, Pharaoh, without a second thought, entrusted the management of the entire country to a stranger (Gen. 41:39–41). The ruler had forgotten or had not read the Instruction of King Amenemhat (12th Dynasty), who instructed his son: "Beware of subjects who are nobodies, of whose plotting one is not aware. Trust not a brother, know not a friend, make no intimates, for it is worthless. When you lie down, guard your heart yourself, for no man has adherents on the day of woe" (2006LichtheimM). Furthermore, Joseph lacked state service experience, knowledge of the administrative apparatus and economic structure, as well as formal education. Nowhere in the text is it stated that the diviner was literate at all. The epic implies the illiteracy of a high official issuing orders based on intuition. The only reliable fact is that he knew how to "divine" and speak persuasively and clearly (Gen. 37:6–7, 9, 40:12–13, 18–19, 44:5, 15).
In Ancient Egypt, the highest office in the state was held by the tjaty (vizier), who was the person closest to the Pharaoh and could only be a close relative (2018ГеннисИ). Handing over the reins of state governance to an uneducated foreigner from a family of shepherds was the ultimate insult to the reigning consanguineous vizier. This individual, along with his subordinates, could have become an implacable enemy of Joseph. Presumably, the authors did not plan to present the story to their contemporaries as a reflection of real events. The tale turned out to be vivid, naive, poignant, memorable, and hinting at familiar figures. In reality, Joseph's prototype reached the prime minister's chair through a long, purposeful journey not devoid of intrigue, simultaneously building a support group and buying loyalty. Details of his rise should be sought in the careers of many modern heads of state. It seems improbable that any of them would appoint an unexpected, unvetted, and inexperienced candidate from prison as head of government.
If Joseph initially held a low-ranking post, he interacted with a wide circle of representatives of the lower class. This allowed him to learn about the impending eruption of the Santorini volcano from immigrants and merchants arriving in Egypt, including those from the Mediterranean islands: Thera, Crete, and Cyprus. Immigrants from various parts of the Near East had been settling in the eastern Nile Delta since the end of the 12th Dynasty. Avaris possessed a major naval port through which intensive trade was conducted (2010Forstner-MüllerI). In this city, in addition to Canaanites/Amorites and Nubians, there apparently existed Cypriot and Minoan communities, as representatives of the latter created characteristic frescoes (2018BietakM).
It has been established that the inhabitants of the island of Thera, specifically the dwellers of the settlement of Akrotiri, evacuated in advance, anticipating a large-scale catastrophe (2020EvansKJ_McCoyFW). During excavations at the archaeological site of Palaikastro in Crete, monumental structures were discovered that had been shattered by an earthquake in the Late Minoan period, which shortly thereafter were likely reoccupied, and finally definitively destroyed and abandoned (1987MacgillivrayJA_SmythD). It was ascertained that prior to the main eruption of Santorini, less intense eruptions and earthquakes occurred. This stunned the island's population and prompted flight, although some returned, only to leave their homeland again immediately before or during the main eruption (2020EvansKJ_McCoyFW). Indirect evidence of earlier volcanic eruptions is provided by radiocarbon dating curves of organic material buried at the time of the Minoan catastrophe. The elevation of atmospheric concentration of marker carbon (14C) during the Bronze Age over a broad time interval is interpreted as prolonged production of volcanic gases by Santorini's fumaroles even prior to the main explosion (2012WienerMH). Living near the Jordan Rift Valley, Joseph could have personally observed eruptions of mud springs, the ignition of hydrogen sulfide and methane, and heard stories of volcanoes and earthquakes. His grandfather Abraham witnessed manifestations of volcanism – whether in reality or in a hallucination: "the smoke of the country went up as the smoke of a furnace", the "overthrow" of the surrounding area, a rain of brimstone and fire, and the destruction of people and vegetation (Gen. 19:21–28).
Having correlated the facts and realized the impending consequences, Joseph managed to present the unfavorable prospects for the country's agriculture to Pharaoh in an accessible manner and propose a strategy for preparing for the food crisis (Gen. 41:33–37). The true cause of the anticipated food shortage was hardly explained. It is unknown whether the prototype of the king actually had a harbinger dream (Gen. 41:1–7, 17–21). Rather, this is a literary imagination of the authors based on observations and conversations with dreamers. In Egypt, since the 12th Dynasty, staff at the Houses of Life had been compiling manuals in which they systematically recorded correspondences between dreams and events (1951GarnotJSF). The papyrus Chester Beatty III contains the so-called Book of Dreams, possibly dating to the 12th Dynasty, which interprets dreams (1935GardinerAH).
Joseph played the role of a sagacious magician, whereas in reality he clearly understood the sequence of geological, climatic, biological, and social phenomena following an eruption. We believe that by his first profession, Jacob's son was a diviner, having refined his rhetorical skills since childhood by commenting on his own dreams and the dreams of clients (Gen. 37:5–7, 9–10, 40:8–12, 41:11–13). He possessed a scrying cup, persuasive techniques, the gift of foresight, and the practice of deception (Gen. 44:5, 15). How he actually managed to secure an audience with the king is difficult to say. A prophecy presented to an ailing, suspicious, and inexperienced ruler is capable of making a strong impression. Achieving self-serving goals through lies and verbal manipulation using intimidation and promises is observed to this day, often helping individuals advance up the career ladder.
We cannot categorically deny that Joseph's prototype was considered a valuable specialist invited into service by the ruler himself. The knowledge of an exorcist and a physician often transcended national borders, and foreign professionals of this kind received a warm welcome in neighboring lands. For instance, oracles and healing cults were invited from abroad to the Hittite Kingdom (2026ArnottR). There is evidence of physicians with Luwian and Hurrian names from the vassal state of Kizzuwatna practicing in the Hittite capital (2002BryceT).
The
Story of Sinuhe (20th–18th centuries BCE) narrates a hero who successfully
settled in Syria after fleeing Egypt (1978КоростовцевМА). An eloquent case from the Hittite Kingdom at
the end of the 2nd millennium BCE is also known: King Hattusili III gave a
female relative in marriage to the Babylonian physician Raba-sha-Marduk and
provided him with a "fine house" (2005BryceT). In essence, the
physician was detained against his will to work for the benefit of the royal
court. According to Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE), the Greek physician
Ctesias of Cnidus was captured by King Artaxerxes II and held for 17 years
(2010StronkJP). It is assumed that Ctesias of Cnidus lived in prosperity in
Persia between 413–397 BCE (2010Llewellyn-JonesL_RobsonJ).
Upon
securing his position, Joseph begins to establish a strategic food reserve from
one-fifth of the harvest (Gen. 41:34, 46). All food supplies are gathered and
placed in state storage. As a result, they managed to accumulate "grain in
great abundance" (Gen. 41:48–49). The granaries were sealed according to
Egyptian tradition. To do this, Joseph appears to have used Pharaoh's signet
ring (Gen. 41:42). Seals of Sheshi have been discovered throughout Lower Egypt
and further south, down to the Third Cataract of the Nile in Nubia
(2002BunsonMR). Under this ruler, surpluses of grain crops may have also been
purchased in adjacent regions.
Without
reserves, ordinary households become vulnerable even to the slightest crop
failure, such as during a low Nile inundation. Then the eruption of Santorini
occurs, in our view, around 1610 BCE. According to a remark in the Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, the explosion of the mountain on the island of Thera with
the subsequent tsunami fell in the eleventh year of the reign of an unnamed
pharaoh (1923PeetTE). Having ascended the throne around 1621 BCE, 11 years
later – that is, in 1610 BCE – Sheshi witnessed the devastation of the Egyptian
coast by powerful waves arriving from the direction of Thera. Volcanic ash and
tsunami traces from the Minoan eruption of Santorini have been identified on
the coasts of Crete, Israel, and Turkey (2008BruinsHJ_VanDerPlichtJ; 2009Goodman-TchernovBN_MartY;
2021LespezL_PomadèreM; 2021AydarE_FouacheEG). In a 15th-century BCE workshop at
the palace of Avaris, numerous lumps of pumice were found, the majority of
which remained from the Minoan volcanic eruption (2018BietakM). A series of giant
waves following the collapse of the caldera on Thera, combined with prevailing
west-to-east winds and currents, facilitated the arrival of pumice at the
shores of Egypt. However, Santorini pumice has also been found in northern
Sinai during excavations of a Second Intermediate Period settlement
(1996BietakM).
The
immediate consequences for the Egyptians likely included the exacerbation of
respiratory problems from inhaling sulfur compounds and volcanic dust
microparticles. Toxic substances brought by ash apparently entered human and
animal organisms through drinking water, causing poisoning. Acid rain damaged
skin and eyes, acidified groundwater and rivers, and destroyed crops and
pasture grass. Global cooling contributed to the spread of common colds. Alterations
in aquatic biota increased the concentration of microorganisms pathogenic to
humans. Households of the poorest social strata appear to have immediately
faced food shortages. Famine and disease led to elevated mortality. A
description of the consequences of the Santorini eruption can easily be
reconstructed from the texts of The Admonitions of Ipuwer, the Hittite Myth of
Telepinu, the Tempest Stela, the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, and the Hearst
Medical Papyrus. These written records were composed in the late 17th to early
16th centuries BCE.
The
potential critical vulnerability of established human systems to unexpected and
consecutive multi-year extreme events, accompanied by combined stress factors,
can significantly amplify the consequences of risky land-use methods and land
degradation. In particular, a severe three-year drought in Anatolia at the end
of the 13th century BCE surpassed conventional strategies and food reserves,
possibly becoming a key factor that led to the collapse of the Hittite Empire
(2023ManningSW_SparksJP). It has been established that prior to the fall of
statehood, a serious crisis involving food and labor shortages was escalating
in the country, accompanied by periods of famine, unrest, and war (2005BryceT).
Joseph
observes. Finally, "the people cried out" (Gen. 41:55). On the order
of the benefactor Pharaoh, the sale of bread begins (Gen. 41:55). Evidence
supporting the plausibility of these events at the end of the Second
Intermediate Period is the unhindered arrival of starving people from Canaan
into the Nile Valley (Gen. 42:5). The south of Palestine, centered at Sharuhen
(Tell el-Ajjul?), was governed by the Hyksos (1996BietakM). This site is
localized in the Gaza Strip of the Palestinian Authority. To the east, in the northwestern
Negev desert, the geonym Wadi Nahal Gerar still exists. Presumably, this dry
riverbed corresponds to the "valley of Gerar", controlled by the
"Philistine" king, where Isaac settled shortly after the birth of
Esau and Jacob (Gen. 26:1, 17).
Our
primary source indirectly testifies to the Egyptian king's jurisdiction over
the southern Levant during Joseph's time. In it, Canaan and Egypt are mentioned
in parallel, as if referring to a province and a metropolis. Moreover, no other
territories are named: "the land of Egypt and all the land of Canaan
fainted", money was gathered "that was found in the land of Egypt,
and in the land of Canaan", "money failed in the land of Egypt, and
in the land of Canaan" (Gen. 47:13–15). Here it should be noted that only
"the land of Egypt" was bought for Pharaoh (Gen. 47:20). Agricultural
land in Canaan was not acquired. The impression arises that the authors did not
wish, even in a work of fiction, to rob and permanently bind the southern
Levant to Egypt.
Archaeological
indicators of an increased migrant population in Avaris have been identified
dating to after 1610 BCE (2005BoothC). An acute food deficit in the Nile Delta
likely developed in 1609 BCE. Two years later, the relocation of Jacob's clan
to Egypt took place (Gen. 45:6, 10–11, 46:6, 28). More specifically, this
occurred in 1607 BCE.
The
famine continues, and Joseph exchanges grain for silver and livestock belonging
to the country's citizens (Gen. 47:14–17). The primary source repeatedly notes
that the calamity unfolded both in Egypt and in Canaan (Gen. 47:13–15). That
is, the writers emphasize that the southern Levant during this historical
period belonged to the state of Egypt. Subsequently, Joseph buys the land and
the people themselves in exchange for bread (Gen. 47:19–20). Notably, only the
Egyptians expressed the desire to sell themselves (Gen. 47:15). The inhabitants
of Canaan did not make such an offer. After this, the acquired "people he
removed to cities from one end of the borders of Egypt even to the other end
thereof" (Gen. 47:21). It has been established that during the late stage
of the Hyksos Empire's existence, the settlement of Avaris expanded, and the
population grew sharply, to the extent that even the cemetery became a
residential quarter (2010Forstner-MüllerI; 2021VilainS).
Thus,
Joseph eliminated the middle class working in agriculture and brought under
control the stratum of large landowners and livestock breeders. The affluent
elite became dependent on food rations, while the army became more
controllable. Only the families of the priests avoided enslavement, as
"only the land of the priests bought he not; for the priests had a portion
assigned them" (Gen. 47:22). This latter circumstance should be viewed as
bribery of the priesthood. Ultimately, the king became the owner of all land,
livestock, and the majority of the population (Gen. 47:23). Furthermore, Joseph
imposed a 20 per cent tax on agricultural tenants (Gen. 47:24). In doing so,
labor resources were monitored, and a steady influx of money into the treasury
was ensured. Dense urban living facilitated administration through the
voluntarist distribution of food.
Below,
the deterioration of Jacob's health is described: "the time drew nigh that
Israel must die" (Gen. 47:29). His eyes "were dim for age, so that he
could not see" (Gen. 48:10). General weakness necessitated bed rest (Gen.
48:2, 49:33). At the same time, Jacob's consciousness, memory, and speech
remained intact (Gen. 48:7, 49:2). The military surgeon Dominique-Jean Larrey
(1766–1842) repeatedly observed cases of inflammatory ophthalmopathy leading to
loss of vision among French soldiers who found themselves in Egypt for the
first time. According to his report, eye damage was caused by infections,
direct sunlight, sand dust, night hypothermia, and high humidity in marshy
areas (1803LarreyDJ). These factors were fully present in the Nile Delta. Their
impact was aggravated by the appearance of volcanic dust, torrential acid rain,
a drop in temperature, and an increased concentration of toxic compounds in
water and air. Naturally, pathologies characteristic of an elderly man were
exacerbated. It is unsurprising that ophthalmopathy developed, culminating in
complete blindness.
The
body of the deceased Jacob is embalmed (Gen. 49:33, 50:2). "And his sons
carried him into the land of Canaan" (Gen. 50:13). The funeral procession
departed from the land of "Goshen" and proceeded "to the
threshing floor of Atad [Goren-atad], which is beyond Jordan" (Gen. 50:8,
10). From this, it is clear: the encampment was located on the eastern bank of
the Jordan River. That is, the mummy was transported not along the
Mediterranean coast or through the sands of the Sinai Desert, but bypassing the
Dead Sea through the southern part of the Jordanian Highlands. Such a route can
be explained by the contamination of desert wells with volcanic ash, as well as
the acidification of water reservoirs in the south of modern Palestine and
Israel following the Minoan eruption. The path through the mountains east of Sinai
presumably implied the availability of drinkable water from springs fed by deep
soil horizons.
In
the corpus of Ancient Egyptian literature across various periods, there are
works that "predict" the future. Among such texts, it is appropriate
to mention tales from the series Pharaoh Khufu and the Magicians, where the
birth of 5th Dynasty pharaohs is foretold, and the Prophecy of Neferti,
proclaiming the accession of Amenemhat I, founder of the 12th Dynasty (1956КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ; 2010Ильин-ТомичАА_СафроновАВ). The glorification of wise, heroic, and
benevolent royal authority is widely known, for example, in the Story of
Sinuhe, the Instruction of King Amenemhat, and the Poem of Pentaur (1978КоростовцевМА).
Political
propaganda and the appeasement of the king are discernible in the Book of
Genesis. It emphasizes Pharaoh's benevolence toward Near Eastern immigrants,
treating them almost like fellow countrymen (Gen. 45:17–21, 47:5–6). The ruler
farsightedly appoints Joseph as vizier (Gen. 41:38–40). It is this king who
dreams a prophetic dream that is correctly interpreted, resulting in the
country successfully coping with the consequences of famine while enriching the
ruler beyond measure (Gen. 41:1–7, 28, 47:23). Despite the large-scale
calamity, Pharaoh agrees to preserve the property of the priesthood, thereby
maintaining their financial independence (Gen. 47:22, 26).
The
text contains a hope for all descendants of Abraham to return to their native
places after 400 years and receive "all the land of Canaan, for an
everlasting possession" (Gen. 15:13, 17:8). The children of Jacob,
great-grandchildren of Abraham, are predicted to be the first to return (Gen.
15:16, 48:21). Each of them is foretold their own principality – an inheritance
(Gen. 48:6, 49:1). The primary source simultaneously feeds the expectation of
ethnic Egyptians for the departure of the Asiatics. The idea is implanted
"in their ears" that the newcomers will leave the Nile Valley and
even carry away the remains of their ancestors (Gen. 47:30, 50:5, 25). Until
that moment, the people rejoice, expressing gratitude to the representative of
a foreign tribe: "Thou hast saved our lives: let us find grace in the
sight of my lord" (Gen. 47:25).
In
this work of entertainment, the authors embedded hidden meaning in agreement
with their patron. Analyzing the content of the Book of Genesis
comprehensively, we have formed the opinion that a number of characters are
presented as counterparts of supreme Ancient Egyptian deities. We perceive that
the "Almighty" (the Lord) corresponds to the main demiurge – the god
Ra-Atum; Jacob is the embodiment of Osiris; his twin brother Esau is Seth;
Jacob's elder wife Leah is Nephthys; his younger wife Rachel is Isis; Joseph is
the personification of Horus (Hor) (2026ArkhipovSV).
Possibly,
in the figures of Isaac (Yitzchak) and Rebekah (Rivkah), the writers implied
the deities Geb and Nut, while Abraham and Sarah represent hypostases of Tefnut
and Shu. Excluding Horus, we arrive at the sacred nine – the Ennead of the
Heliopolitan pantheon. Moreover, Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, was
primarily identified with Horus of Behdet, that is, the reigning pharaoh.
"Following the model of the Heliopolitan Ennead, other cities in Egypt
created their own enneads of gods" (2004РакИВ). The Patriarchs and their wives appear to us
as the Ennead of Avaris, equivalent to the Heliopolitan "Great Ennead".
Joseph married Assenath, the daughter of "Poti-phera priest of On"
(Gen. 41:45, 51, 46:20). "On" is the Egyptian name for Heliopolis,
the largest religious center of Ancient Egypt. With the residence of King
Sheshi located in Avaris, a dedicated "Great Ennead" with Asiatic
traits was required, yet analogous to the Egyptian cult.
Joseph
appears to have initiated the composition of the Book of Genesis following the
Santorini volcanic eruption. The work was completed after Jacob's death and the
elimination of the threat of famine. The first readers perceived the work as
entertainment, discerning familiar figures within it. The writers realized that
after just a decade, the events they set down would turn from fiction into
reality. Contemporaries, recognizing its literary nature, ignored inaccuracies,
such as the number of "years of great plenty" and "years of
famine" (Gen. 41:29–31). Literary authors used the number
"seven" as a sacred marker of the absolute completeness of an action,
as seen in Mesopotamian tablets, as well as in the Egyptian Pyramid Texts and
Coffin Texts.
The
creators of the Book of Genesis masked a secret door to power behind a
kaleidoscope of plots. Only Joseph could "pass" through it – he who
is characterized as a talented administrator, an outstanding visionary, the
closest associate of Pharaoh, the savior of the country, a highly moral man,
the keeper of the state treasury, and the son of the man who defeated a divine
messenger in combat. A tireless worker who pastured small livestock in his
childhood, he endured many hardships without becoming embittered. External
traits pointed to an analogy with the slender and handsome Osiris. Legends
reveal that Osiris was "comely of face and tall, born of the gods of Earth
and Sky, Geb and Nut, as a new incarnation of the sun" (2021МюллерМ). In the Great Hymn to Osiris,
recorded during the 18th Dynasty, the god is described as "Good leader of
the Nine Gods, gracious, lovely to behold, awe-inspiring to all lands, that his
name be foremost" (2006LichtheimM).
In
the Papyrus Bremner-Rhind, we find words concerning the deceased Osiris:
"a beautiful youth who departed prematurely, truly withered before his
time" (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ). A
spell from the corpus of the Coffin Texts (c. 2134–2040 BCE) suggests a
well-proportioned physique for Osiris: "Osiris as Orion, long of leg and
lengthy of stride, who presides over Upper Egypt" (1978FaulknerRO). It
appears that Jacob was implied as his earthly incarnation, which is why
"Joseph was comely in form, and comely in appearance" (Gen. 39:6).
Inscribed upon the Metternich Stela are the words: "Horus, who is without
sin, a youth beautiful among the gods!" (2004РакИВ). Joseph's mother Rachel was likewise
"beautiful in form and beautiful in appearance" (Gen. 29:17). In our
view, she personified the magnificent Isis, who in the tale The Contendings of
Horus and Seth appears in the guise of a "fair maiden" (1940МатьеМВ). This goddess is the "wife of
Osiris, mother of Horus; also identified with the royal throne"
(2007AllenJP).
Osiris's
son, Horus-Behdeti, was revered as the celestial patron of the pharaohs (2004РакИВ). Thus was named Horus, son of
Osiris, following his victory over Seth at Behdet (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ). Considering the above, in the Old Testament
depiction of Joseph we perceive an allusion to Horus (Hor), a deity manifested
"both in the person of the living king and in the sun" (2007AllenJP).
Undoubtedly,
according to the Book of Genesis, Joseph is the prime candidate for the vacant
post of Pharaoh. Furthermore, the levers of the country's economic management
were held in the hands of the vizier. The elite during the time of famine received
necessary food rations. The armed forces did not suffer from malnutrition;
otherwise, a mutiny would have occurred. Joseph entered into kinship with the
priesthood and demonstrated his favor toward them by not depriving them of
their land holdings (Gen. 47:22). He swore an oath to his brothers – that is to
say, the clan – promising to care for their welfare and sustenance (Gen.
50:21). In Jacob's words promising his offspring patrimonies in Canaan, one
discerns a prediction of returning to their homeland. The head of the family
even specifically designated the settlement locations of the tribe:
"Shiloh", "unto Zidon" (Gen. 49:10, 13). Joseph's brothers
declared the same to the reigning Pharaoh (Gen. 47:4). All the more so because
the population in this territory had decreased following the Minoan
catastrophe. An inheritance was also granted to Benjamin, over whom his elder
brother Joseph exercised special care (Gen. 43:34, 45:22). "Benjamin"
or "Binyamin" was a real-world Near Eastern ethnonym. A nomadic tribe
of "Benjaminites" is mentioned in the Mari correspondence dating back
to the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM; 1988DurandJ-M). This ethnic group,
if present in the Hyksos kingdom, could join the children of Jacob if needed.
The
path to the throne was veiled by the fact that, according to the text, Joseph
did not claim the throne nor did he occupy it. He was merely fortunate enough
to "live" to the age of one hundred and ten years (Gen. 50:22, 26).
In Ancient Egyptian literature, the ideal lifespan of 110 years is encountered
repeatedly (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ; 2001TaylorJH). In reality, the
maximum age of an actual Egyptian rarely exceeded forty years (2005AllenJP).
Almost
immediately after recounting antediluvian and obscure times, "prerequisites"
for Joseph's ascension to the throne emerge in our primary source. The most
essential condition was observed – Asiatic dominance in Egypt. The candidate's
great-grandfather turns out to be a resident of the civilized Sumerian-Akkadian
nation, having been born in the major Mesopotamian city of "Ur of the
Chaldees" [Ur-Kasdim] (Gen. 11:27–28). His great-grandmother was likewise
born in Mesopotamia and was even briefly listed as Pharaoh's wife (Gen. 11:29,
12:15, 19). Their son acquired a wife living in the Tigris and Euphrates valley
in exchange for a rich bride-price (Gen. 24:4, 34–35, 53). Joseph's father, a
hereditary representative of Sumerian-Akkadian culture, takes wives and
concubines from Mesopotamian Haran (Gen. 30:22–23, 28–29). In Northern Mesopotamia,
most of their children are born, a fact emphasized twice in the text (Gen.
35:23–26, 46:8–25). Jacob inexplicably emerges victorious over an angel and
receives a blessing from above (Gen. 32:29–30). Subsequently, this is
additionally emphasized with the indication of receiving a blessing directly
from God (Gen. 35:10). The second name, "Israel", underscored divine
election through the theophoric element "El". Similarly, Bethuel – the
father of Rebekah – is the son of Nahor (Gen. 22:23, 25:20). The outcome of the
battle with the supreme entity became visible: Jacob preserved his life, merely
losing his normal gait. The limp constantly reminded those around him of the
patriarch's triumph (Gen. 32:32). Jacob magnanimously blesses Pharaoh during an
audience, thereby performing the function of a connecting link between God and
humanity (Gen. 47:7, 10). A similar role would later be chosen by Moshe
(Moses), who is advised by the Almighty: "Be thou for the people Godward,
that thou mayest bring the causes unto God" (Exod. 18:19). According to
our book, the king expressed no indignation and did not clarify on what grounds
a layman was bestowing grace upon him. The audience listening to the legend was
well-prepared; they too had no questions or doubts.
In
accordance with our hypothesis, Abraham was a refugee from war-torn Ur. This
nomad did not converse with Pharaoh, and Sarah was never listed as the wife of
Egypt's ruler. No exceptionally large compensation in gold and silver was
handed over for Rebekah. Jacob's battle with the angel was the recollection of
a dream or hallucination. His actual hip injury was skillfully adapted by the
writers. Joseph was not sold into slavery, but fled from provincial reality.
The life of wandering shepherds was hard and difficult (2026ArnottR). The young
man began his career in Egypt as a laborer, studied, and thanks to exceptional
abilities, became a diviner. Overall, we see an ambitious, literate, eloquent,
and intelligent Asiatic as a worthy candidate for Pharaoh's throne.
It
is unclear whether Sheshi had legitimate heirs. Even if such existed, palace
coups had occurred in Egypt's past, and power transferred to another family. In
the Book of Genesis, there is no mention of the king's children. This provides
a reason to assert that princes did not exist. Sheshi is believed to have died
around 1600 BCE (2002BunsonMR). Whether this was a natural death or a
conspiracy has not been established. We believe that the Pharaoh featured in
the Book of Genesis died after its composition.
The
royal seals of Sheshi and the subsequent pharaoh Yaqub-Har show significant
differences, indicating that some time elapsed between their reigns
(1997RyholtKS_Bülow-JacobsenA). Sheshi's death provided a pause and an
opportunity for individuals seeking power to act. Undoubtedly, Joseph took
advantage of the situation and ascended the throne either as a regent or as a
full monarch. We discern no political groups capable of offering resistance.
Judging by the Book of Genesis, Joseph had on his side: the priesthood, the
administrative apparatus, the titular nation, and Asiatic migrants. All
components for success during a dynastic crisis were present. He controlled
state finances, prepared an ideological myth about himself, and married the
priest's daughter. The first declaration regarding Joseph's legitimacy was
expected to come from his father-in-law, a priest at the leading religious
center in Heliopolis, who is mentioned three times in the text (Gen. 41:45, 50,
46:20).
Precedents
of power transition from a prime minister to a pharaoh are known from both the
Middle and New Kingdoms. Amenemhat I, founder of the 12th Dynasty, previously
served as vizier under Mentuhotep IV. Following the death of Tutankhamun, a
pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, Ay, who had worked as his advisor and vizier under
Akhenaten, ascended the throne. King Horemheb of the 18th Dynasty had a
co-ruler in the person of Vizier Ramesses I, who later became pharaoh
(2002BunsonMR).
In
the Book of Genesis, there are no explicit phrases regarding anyone's ascension
to the throne. Had such phrases existed, the ending would have resembled the
finale of the Ancient Egyptian story Tale of Two Brothers, dated to the 13th
century BCE. The main protagonist of the tale – the shepherd Bata, who in
certain circumstances mirrors the actions of Joseph – spent many years as the
king's son and heir, in whom "the people throughout the whole land
rejoiced". Following the ruler's death, Bata stands trial before his wife.
After deliberation, the dignitaries confirm Bata's right to the throne (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ).
In
our primary source, Joseph's claim to Pharaoh's chair is substantiated: God
"hath made me a father to Pharaoh, and lord of all his house, and a ruler
throughout all the land of Egypt" (Gen. 45:8). Jacob's gesture of respect
to the ruler in the form of a blessing is also present (Gen. 47:7). Below,
there is an allusion to Joseph's enthronement – Jacob's famous deathbed
"prophecy" (Gen. 49:22–26). It resonates with statements uttered
during a coronation. The crowning of a monarch or the inauguration of a
president is accompanied by an oath. The words uttered by Joseph after his
ascension to power are perceived as an oath: "Now therefore fear ye not: I
will nourish you, and your little ones" (Gen. 50:21). There is a single
instance where the authors "let slip" the accomplished or anticipated
enthronement of the Asiatic ruler. The phrase is perceived prophetically:
"from thence is the shepherd, the stone of Israel" (Gen. 49:24). The
rightful successor appears to have been intended to be Ephraim (Gen. 48:14,
20).
The
instability of Hyksos rule was reflected in Jacob's speech: "God shall be
with you, and bring you again unto the land of your fathers" (Gen. 48:21).
A similar meaning is present in Joseph's address to his brothers: "God
will surely visit you, and bring you out of this land" (Gen. 50:24). A
prophecy of similar content is received by Abraham in a dream. God
"said" that the patriarch's descendants "shall come out with
great substance", or more precisely, the fourth "generation shall
come hither again" (Gen. 15:12–14). The storytellers considered Abraham
the progenitor. Thus, his grandchildren – Jacob's children – are, according to
the "prediction", the fourth generation, precisely the ones who will
leave Egypt. It appears this was anticipated following the fall of the Hyksos
kingdom. The migration of Asiatics to the Nile Delta described in the epic is
perceived as an unavoidable temporary measure. They came merely "to
sojourn" (Gen. 47:4).
The
native Joseph was named "Zaphenath-paneach" by the king (Gen. 30:24;
41:45). In this instance, an Egyptian name appears that originated in the
Middle Kingdom around 2000 BCE and remained in use through the New Kingdom
(2007KitchenKA). The newly minted monarch was required to renounce his worldly
moniker and adopt a throne name. We suggest that this became
"Yaqub-Hor" (Ya'qub-Har) or "Meruserre". This name was
borne by a pharaoh of the Great Hyksos Dynasty who ruled for approximately 18
years after Sheshi (2002BunsonMR). Certain scholars, confirming that Ya'qub-Har
reigned after Sheshi, place both in the pre-Hyksos period
(1997RyholtKS_Bülow-JacobsenA).
"Jacob"
(Ya'akov, Ya'qub) was a very widespread name in the Amorite Kingdom during the
Middle Bronze Age, which was destroyed by Hammurabi around 1760 BCE
(2024MillardA). Similar monikers are discerned in the Old Babylonian Amorite
onomasticon: Ia-ku-b[a]-an, Ia-ak-ku-ub-e-da, Ia-ku-bi, Ia-ku-bi-DINGIR,
Ia-ku-bu (2018GolinetsV). The second name acquired by Jacob was
"Israel" (Isra'el) (Gen. 32:29). The use of the theophoric element
"El" confirms the holder's belonging to a genuine Near Eastern
tradition. Among the letters of the 18th-century BCE Mari archive, one encounters:
Ibal-pi-El, Yahsib-El, Yeskit-El, Yasim-El (1988DurandJ-M;
1988CharpinD_LafontB).
As
noted above, the name of the pharaoh who succeeded Sheshi was Ya'qub-Har, or in
an alternative reading, Yaqub-Hor (1997RyholtKS_Bülow-JacobsenA; 2002BunsonMR).
Har or Hor is a reference to the deity Horus (Hor), the only offspring of
Osiris. In writing, it was designated by the hieroglyph ḫrw, that is,
"Horus" (2007AllenJP). In the Late Period, the name was recorded as:
Har-uer (Horus the Elder), Har-pe-khard (Horus the Child / Young Horus),
Har-si-eset (Horus, Son of Isis), everywhere with the prenomen Har (2021МюллерМ). In our view, Jacob is presented
in the Book of Genesis as the earthly image of Osiris, but with Asiatic roots.
His son Joseph, according to the author's design, claimed an analogy with the
god Horus, offspring of Osiris. As an equivalent for the titular name
"Jacob-Hor" / "Yaqub-Hor", it is appropriate to suggest
"Jacob II" / "Yaqub II", as well as "Son of
Yaqub" / "Son of Jacob". Expatriates from the Tigris and
Euphrates Mesopotamia would identify their fellow countryman by the first part
of the name. The second component, "Hor", was familiar to the native
inhabitants of the Nile Valley and associated with "Horus-Behdeti",
the hypostasis of the ruling pharaoh. A blend of Asiatic and Egyptian
traditions in the monarch's name is particularly appropriate at the end of the
Second Intermediate Period during the 15th Dynasty of the Great Hyksos.
According
to Ancient Egyptian tales, Osiris was slain by his own brother Seth, who in
turn was overcome by Horus. Embedded within the subtext of the throne name
"Yaqub-Hor" is an adherence to the cult of Osiris. The widespread
development of his worship began during the Middle Kingdom, wherein "every
pharaoh was Horus in his coronation mysteries" (1940МатьеМВ). Gradually, there formed "a
deeply human and universally understandable image of a good king, treacherously
slain by an evil and crafty brother, who was avenged by the slain king's loving
son, as well as the touching story of the unfortunate wife and mother
Isis" (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ). By
the end of the Middle Kingdom, Seth came to be considered the
"opposite" of Osiris – the god of the desert, the embodiment of the
evil principle associated with war, drought, and other calamities (2007РакИ).
The
Book of Genesis emphasizes the similarity between the figures of Esau and Seth:
embittered toward his brother, a successful hunter, possessing a reddish skin
tone (Gen. 25:25, 27, 30, 27:41, 32:12). Plutarch (1st–2nd centuries CE)
relates a legend of how Seth embarked on a night hunt for a wild boar and
"found a wooden chest containing the remains of Osiris and broke it
apart" (1996Плутарх).
According to Ancient Egyptian belief, "Seth (Egypt. Seth), son of Geb, was
a god in human form with an animal muzzle, with eyes as red as the hot desert
sand and a similarly red mane, master of natural disasters and wars" (2007РакИ). Near the end of Hyksos rule, a
shift in religious priorities apparently occurred. Worship of Seth replaced the
Egyptian-imitating veneration of Osiris and Horus. This shift is recorded in
the tale The Hyksos King Apopi and Seqenenre, where the god Seth is named as
the patron of the former (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ). The legend states: King Ra-Apopi took the
god Sutekh [Seth] as his lord and served no other deity in the entire land
except Sutekh; and he built a temple of exquisite and imperishable
craftsmanship at the gate of King Ra-Apopi; and every day he arose to offer
sacrifices to Sutekh (1889SayceAH). According to the narrative, Apophis I
defeated the army of Seqenenre, a 16th Dynasty king from Thebes. The head of
his mummy is mutilated by numerous blows from a battle-axe – a weapon of
Asiatic tribes (1930BreastedJH). Apophis I reigned approximately between
1585–1553 BCE (2002BunsonMR). Under his rule, gestures toward classic Osiris
myths, venerated by the titular nation, would be out of place.
Created
as a political manifesto, the Book of Genesis could have facilitated the
ascension to the throne of Joseph's prototype had it been published on the eve
of Sheshi's death. The written word was particularly valued in Ancient Egypt,
much like a peer-reviewed publication in a high-impact journal today. Texts
were copied by scribes without indicating authorship, often noting that the
scroll was found at the feet of a deity in a temple (2001КоростовцевМА). This comprehensively explains why
our primary source contains no name of the author or patron. The manuscript
fulfilled its purpose in full. In place of Joseph, "Yaqub-Hor"
(Jacob-Hor) emerged. Three hundred years later, literary authors would
"make" a similar character a pharaoh, but in a different tale – The
Tale of Two Brothers (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ).
Alteration
of the Book of Genesis was not required, and work on the manuscript ceased.
Investigating the problems associated with the damaged ligament of the head of
femur, developing methods for its reconstruction, and treating subsequent hip
joint pathology were unlikely to interest Joseph. Today, those possessing power
and financial resources are likewise indifferent to this complex topic due to
the absence of near-term gain. Public good often remains a mere empty
declaration used for self-enrichment. The further investigations and observations
of the Egyptian doctor, who first described the cause and early symptoms of hip
joint disease, remained unknown. We perceive the scientific loneliness of this
thinker and the futility of his research efforts in understanding the role of
the ligament of the head of femur. From the end of the Second Intermediate
Period in Ancient Egypt down to the present day, attempts to solve this problem
have met with no success.
According
to our hypothesis, the collection of material for the "medical chart"
concluded after Jacob's death in 1606–1605 BCE. His medical record,
incorporated into the Hyksos-era epic, was "published" no later than
1600 BCE. In other words, the anonymous doctor's comprehension of the
identified injury to the ligament of the head of femur spanned approximately
five to six years.
Title & Contents / Chapter 1 / Chapter 2 / Chapter 3 / Chapter 4 / Chapter 5 / Chapter 6 / Chapter 7 / Chapter 8 / Chapter 9 / Chapter 10 / Chapter 11 / Chapter 12 / Chapter 13 / Chapter 14 / Chapter 15 / Chapter 16 / Chapter 17 / Chapter 18 / Chapter 19 / Chapter 20 / Chapter 21 / Chapter 22 / Chapter 23 / Chapter 24 / Chapter 25 / References / Notes
Russian-language version:
Титул и оглавление / Глава 1 / Глава 2 / Глава 3 / Глава 4 / Глава 5 / Глава 6 / Глава 7 / Глава 8 / Глава 9 / Глава 10 / Глава 11 / Глава 12 / Глава 13 / Глава 14 / Глава 15 / Глава 16 / Глава 17 / Глава 18 / Глава 19 / Глава 20 / Глава 21 / Глава 22 / Глава 23 / Глава 24 / Глава 25 / Список литературы
Author of the publication
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, e-mail: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Publication history
October 23, 2026 - online version of the book is published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. Medical Record: The Contribution of a Middle Bronze Age Egyptian Physician to the Book of Genesis. Dating of the Medical Record. About the round ligament of the femur. October 23, 2026. https://roundligament.blogspot.com/2026/10/medical-record-chapter-3.html
Note
Keywords
hip joint, hip dislocation, osteoarthritis, ligament of the head of femur, ligamentum teres, ligamentum capitis femoris, Minoan Eruption, Bronze Age, Ancient Medicine, Ancient Egypt, Edwin Smith Papyrus, Biblical Chronology, Genesis, Genesis Protograph, Bereshit
NB! Fair practice / use: copied for the purposes of criticism, review, comment, research and private study in accordance with Copyright Laws of the US: 17 U.S.C. §107; Copyright Law of the EU: Dir. 2001/29/EC, art.5/3a,d; Copyright Law of the RU: ГК РФ ст.1274/1.1-2,7
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