Book manuscript: Arkhipov S.V. Medical Record: The Contribution of a Middle Bronze Age Egyptian Physician to the Book of Genesis. Kyrö: Author’s Edition, 2026. – 312 pp. – 2 tables. – Bibliographical references: 856 entries. play.google.com , books.google.com
Chapter 4
THE bronze age encyclopedia
The authors of the Book of Genesis endowed their characters with knowledge, thereby demonstrating their own educational background. At the same time, the writers outlined the timeframe of their activity. Virtually everything set forth by them was known before the New Kingdom of Egypt and the end of the Old Babylonian period of Mesopotamia. Even a superficial glance at our primary source allows one to see in it an encyclopedia of the Middle Bronze Age Middle East. In part thanks to it, one can freely communicate with thinkers of various eras, ask questions, and find answers in their texts.
The
narrative begins with an exposition of what is nearly the Memphite cosmogony of
the ancient Egyptian priests (1901BreastedJH; 2001КоростовцевМА). The main difference is that the
divine names familiar to the Egyptians of the Old Kingdom are excluded, yet
they figure as entities, sometimes in an order different from that in the
myths. A striking example: "In the beginning, God created the heavens and
the earth" (Gen. 1:1 et seq.). In other words, a certain deity creates the
sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb. In the Book of Knowing the Creations of
Ra and of Overthrowing Apep, it is stated: "Shu and Tefnut gave birth to
(Geb and) Nut" (2021МюллерМ). In our view, the opening verses of the Book of Genesis required no
explanation for the natives of the Nile Valley. In a similar vein, the term
"dawn" implies the beginning of the day and the rising of the sun.
In
the second chapter of our manuscript, one traces the motifs of the Heliopolitan
concept of the origin of all things (Gen. 2:4 et seq.). Here, the "Tree of
the Knowledge of Good and Evil" is mentioned (Gen. 2:9). On the leaves of
the Heavenly Tree (the Hathor Tree), the goddess Seshat recorded "all
important events that had occurred in the past and were fated to occur in the
future" (2007РакИ).
"The Egyptian craved close proximity to sacred trees, which he viewed as
living beings capable of providing food and drink and, in turn, receiving
sacrifices" (1917ВикентьевВМ). According to Egyptian legend, "in Heliopolis resided the earthly
proxy of the Heavenly Tree" (2021МюллерМ).
According
to one of the two concepts described in the Book of Genesis, God creates man
"from the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of
life" (Gen. 2:7). According to the "Elephantine version of the
creation of the world, humans and their Ka [soul] were fashioned out of clay by
the ram-headed god Khnum." Along with this, the Egyptians held the view
that it was the god Atum who breathed the soul into the bodies of the children
of the gods Shu and Tefnut (2007РакИ). "The discrepancy between the variants of the legends was
aggravated by the fact that the legends themselves influenced one another:
borrowing of plots and images took place, various concepts were mixed, and
different ideas were syncretized" (2004РакИВ). The writers of our primary source
demonstrate knowledge of a multitude of mythical narratives, shaping an image
close to the Egyptians. Moreover, the mention of manufacturing humanity from
soil turns out to be understandable to natives of Asia. In a Sumerian legend,
the goddess Ninmah and the god Enki molded people from clay (1965КрамерС). In the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh
of the Old Babylonian period, the goddess Aruru molds the hero Enkidu from clay
(1961ДьяконовИМ).
The
creators of the Book of Genesis reflected their personal concept of biological
evolution. According to their hypothesis, plants initially appear on land (Gen.
1:11–12). Then aquatic animals emerge: "Let the waters bring forth swarms
of living creatures," says God (Gen. 1:20). Last among the species of
fauna, the superentity forms terrestrial mammals – "beasts of the
earth" (Gen. 1:24). On the whole, what has been stated aligns with modern
concepts of the transformation of living organisms. Indeed, the remains of the
oldest mammal, Liaoconodon hui, was found in deposits from the beginning of the
Early Cretaceous period (2011MengJ_LiC). This is later than reptile-like
creatures, dinosaurs, and Archaeopteryx – the first bird-like creature
(1995LundbergJG; 2014LeeMS_DykeGJ; 2018LangerMC_DaRosaÁAS).
The
physician co-author of the Book of Genesis, in addition to possessing a broad
outlook, recorded a fact of scientific foresight. Thus, according to the text,
the "Lord God" extracted "one of the ribs" from Adam,
somehow "reconstructed" the bone organ "into a woman, and
brought her to the man" (Gen. 2:21–22). In the biblical account, a
specialist in the biomedical field will easily discern the oldest project
reminiscent of human cloning after the manner of vegetative propagation of
plants from a leaf or shoot. It is assumed that God acts mechanically upon the
rib, and then the modified human bone organ is incubated in a specialized
structure. The artificial hatching of poultry on the banks of the Nile dates
back to approximately 3000 BCE (2023AdameMM_KudaNT). Certain researchers
believed that Egyptians should take pride in the incubators they designed even
"...more than in their pyramids" (1946El-IbiaryHM).
The
idea of growing people from a rib apparently emerged during the Middle Kingdom
of Egypt. In a spell from the corpus of the Coffin Texts (ca. 2134–2040 BCE),
there is an analogy to Old Testament verses: "I am the ears of grain that
are born of Osiris, that grow from the ribs of Osiris, that sustain the lives
of men" (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ);
"is this bush of life which went forth from Osiris to grow on the ribs of
Osiris and to nourish the plebs, which makes the gods divine and spiritualizes
the spirits" (1973FaulknerRO).
The writers of the Book of Genesis knew of the existence of many languages. According to the legend they developed, dialects arise by the will of supernatural entities: "Come, let us go down and there confuse their language, so that they will not understand one another's speech" (Gen. 11:7–9). Previously, there was only one dialect in the world: "Now the whole earth had one language and one speech" (Gen. 11:1). Meanwhile, prior to this, the tribes of Shem, Ham, and Japheth are mentioned: "according to their language, according to their families" (Gen. 10:1–5). Here the writers made an "oversight," yet demonstrated that they had studied linguistics: the origin and spread of languages. Joseph understood the Egyptians and the dialect of the inhabitants of Canaan, but used the services of an "interpreter" for secrecy (Gen. 42:23). The profession of "interpreter" is mentioned in writings of the Old and Middle Kingdoms of Egypt (1915GardinerA).
The authors' knowledge of several languages is evidenced by an abundance of loanwords. This confused the scribe who set out to translate the primary source from Ancient Egyptian into Hebrew. To avoid misunderstandings, the translator preserved the phonetic rendering of unclear terms and names, conveying them through similar concepts. Some of these are presented below. For instance, in Old Testament cosmogony, the words "steam/mist," the toponym "Eden" ("Eiden"), and "garments" appear to be Sumerian-Akkadian loanwords (2004OppenheimAL; 2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 2:6, 8–9, 3:21, 37:3). The concept "bdellium" (bdolach) circulated in the territory of the Horn of Africa or Arabia (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 2:12). The word kinnor in the sense of "lyre" most likely originated in northern Syria or Anatolia (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 4:21). "Iron" is a Luwian term from Anatolia (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 4:22). The source of borrowing is unclear regarding the variety of woody plant gopher; it may be cypress or cedar (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 6:14). The Instruction Addressed to King Merikare speaks of cedar and juniper timber arriving in Egypt from abroad (2006LichtheimM). The nearest location of cedar forests is the northern Levant. "Ark" is an Egyptian loanword meaning "coffin, chest," as well as "shrine, room" (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 6:14). "Wine" is an ancient culture word that arose either in the Eastern Mediterranean or in the southern Caucasus (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 9:21). A Hurrian origin is posited for the word meaning "to deliver/hand over" someone (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 14:20). The term "furnace/oven" was likely borrowed from Indo-Iranian, Armenian, or Caucasian languages (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 15:17). The concept of "fire" is found in Hittite (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 15:17). The word "river" derives from Egyptian (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 15:18). "Pharaoh" (Par'o) is an Egyptian concept originally designating the palace or residence of the king; by the 12th Dynasty, it became associated with the three wishes following the royal name, and by the New Kingdom, it began to be used as a title for the ruler himself (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 12:15–18). The term "measure" (se'ah) is Akkadian, denoting barley, grain, or a measure of grain (1992RothMT; Gen. 18:6). The ancient word "concubine" apparently stems from an Anatolian source (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 22:24). The pattern of distribution of the word "jar/pitcher" in the Ancient World indicates a Mediterranean origin (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 24:14). The term teraphim, that is, "divinatory figurine," seems to be taken from Luwian (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 31:19). The geonym Yegar-sahadutha means "heap of witness" in Aramaic (2006JochnowitzG; Gen. 31:47). Jacob named the place "Mahanaim" (Gen. 32:3). In Egypt, the word m’hanem’ was used, with an unclear translation (1920BudgeEAW). Egyptian maḫan is also known, being a type of wooden chest. The term occurs in Akkadian texts written as ma-ḫa-an (2004OppenheimAL_ReinerE). The name of the camp "Succoth" rather derives from the Akkadian concept su-uk-ki-šu – the bank of a canal or river (2000OppenheimAL; Gen. 33:17). The region "Paddan-aram" is linked to the North Syrian toponym "Aram," which appeared approximately 3000 BCE (2000LipińskiE; Gen. 33:18). The name "Potiphar" is Egyptian, translating as "he whom Ra has given" (2009UlmerR; Gen. 37:36). "Signet/seal" derives from an Egyptian word attested in the Old Kingdom (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 38:18). In the Hebrew version of the Book of Genesis, the term used for "bread" is an Egyptian loanword specifying a special type of baked goods (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 40:16). The theophoric element El, the name Binyamin (Benjamin), and the toponym Canaan are found in documents from the Mesopotamian Mari archive (1988DurandJ-M; 1988CharpinD_LafontB; Gen. 32:29, 35:18, 37:1). The words "reed," "magicians," "signet ring," "fine linen," and avrech are Egyptian loanwords (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 41:2, 8, 42–43). An Egyptian origin is shared by the names Zaphenath-paneah, Asenath, Poti-phera, and the name of the city On (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 41:45). "Cup/goblet" is almost certainly an ancient culture word present in Hattic, Hittite, and Hurrian (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 40:11). "Cup" in the sense of a "libation vessel" appears during the Old Kingdom period of Egypt (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 44:2). The concept "throne" is present in Akkadian, Ugaritic, Phoenician, and Aramaic dialects (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 41:40). The word "horse" originates from an unidentified location of its domestication (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 47:17). In turn, "lion" belongs to ancient Asian culture and was used in many forms (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 49:2). The term "tribute/task-work" probably has a Hurrian origin (2021NoonanBJ; Gen. 49:15).
The above is by no means an exhaustive list of loanwords incorporated during the translation of the Book of Genesis into Hebrew. The presented spectrum can be supplemented with phrases and expressions used in the Pyramid Texts, Coffin Texts, and literary works of the ancient Egyptians. In addition, we have uncovered numerous numerological correspondences to Egyptian and Mesopotamian traditions. As is evident from our primary source, the authors utilize the meanings and excerpts of Egyptian and Mesopotamian written monuments. During the 2nd millennium BCE, the Egyptians conducted diplomatic correspondence in Akkadian, which served as a lingua franca. In all periods and all regions, mastery of cuneiform was achieved through student copying of texts, beginning with simple syllables, progressing to lexical texts, and ending with literary works and specialized divinatory manuals (1983BeckmanG). Expectedly, the creators of the Book of Genesis understood Akkadian, and possibly Sumerian texts, while simultaneously borrowing scientific and cultural knowledge from these ethnic groups.
In
recounting the journeys of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the authors display a
satisfactory knowledge of the geography of the Fertile Crescent. In doing so,
they also indicate already identified settlements, geological formations, and
bodies of water. In a tomb from the late Middle Kingdom beneath the Ramesseum,
there was uncovered a list of geographical names of first-rate importance,
starting from the fortresses of Nubia and ending with a series of cities in
Upper Egypt (1916GardinerAH). In addition to toponyms of North Africa and the
Levant, our primary source mentions rivers and lands east of Mesopotamia, such
as Cush (Gen. 2:10–14). According to certain archaeologists, Cush (Hindu Kush)
is the highland region of Afghanistan south of Badakhshan Province and
northeast of Kabul (1968HerrmannG). In that case, the "Gihon," which
"encompasses the whole land of Cush," represents the upper reaches of
the Indus River. At the same time, for the ancient Egyptians, Cush was located
in northeastern Africa. On the wall of the tomb of the nomarch Ameni from the
Middle Kingdom period, who served Senusret I, it is inscribed: "Sailing up
the Nile, I passed Cush, reaching the ends of the earth" (2004РакИВ). In the autobiography of Ahmose
(Hyksos period), it is written: "Then I conveyed King Djeserkare, the
justified, when he sailed out to Kush, to enlarge the borders of Egypt"
(2006LichtheimM). According to our account, the main biblical river watering
the Garden of Eden flows out of "Eden" (Gen. 2:10). In Akkadian,
edinu means "plain," which corresponds to the Sumerian concept eden
(2004OppenheimA). The northeast of Mesopotamia is watered by streams from the
valleys of the Zagros Mountains. Somewhere here, according to the storytellers,
"the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden, and there He put the man
whom He had formed" (Gen. 2:8).
Representatives
of the Hyksos visited the lands of Mesopotamia and Anatolia. In the territory
of modern-day Iraq, a granite lion bearing the name of Khayan (15th Dynasty)
was uncovered, while vases with the titles of the named king were found in the
Hittite capital of Hattusa (2002BunsonMR). Hyksos diplomats and accompanying
scribes undoubtedly saw ziggurats. The aforementioned religious pyramidal
structure was erected in Uruk around 3450 BCE, and in Ur in the 22nd century
BCE (1961ВуллиЛ;
2019CrüsemannN_PottsT). In form, the sanctuary was a four-sided truncated
stepped pyramid resembling the base of either an unfinished or a destroyed
giant tower. Upon returning to the Nile Delta, the ambassadors evidently
reported details of Mesopotamian architecture. Thus, they happened to "see
the city and the tower which the sons of men were building" (Gen. 11:5).
From this account, the legend of the "Tower of Babel" and a moral
lesson on human vanity were later formed. In the interfluve of the Tigris and
Euphrates, the emissaries of the Hyksos ruler noted that the local population,
when constructing buildings, used "bricks for stone, and asphalt for
mortar" (Gen. 11:3). In Mesopotamian Ur, bitumen was utilized in
construction: it was poured on floors, used to construct roofs of houses, and
used to bind stones (1961ВуллиЛ).
The
compilers of the Book of Genesis proved themselves to be connoisseurs of the
history of the Ancient World. They were aware of the migration of peoples from
the foothill plains of the Zagros to the Iranian Plateau, likely during a
period of significant global warming. Thus emerged the tradition of Cain, who
fled and "dwelt in the land of Nod, east of Eden" (Gen. 4:16). It has
been established that near the mark of 11, 700 years ago (9750 BCE), warming
was noted, during which the air in Greenland warmed by 10±4 °С (2008KobashiaT_BarnolaJM). In our
view, the hypothetical tiller Cain transitioned from "Eden" into the
mountains approximately 11, 700 years ago, during the global warming at the
beginning of the Holocene epoch. In the new location, Cain builds the city of
"Enoch" (Gen. 4:17). In the central Zagros Mountains, the ruins of a
settlement dating back to 10,000–7, 590 BCE – named Sheikh-e-Abad – have been
discovered (2020MatthewsR_RaheemKR).
Someone
also related to the men of letters the reverse migration of tribes from the
Zagros Mountains westward into the Mesopotamian Lowland (Gen. 11:2). The
Egyptian archives apparently contained information regarding the kingdoms of
"Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar" (Gen.
10:10). The writers were clearly knowledgeable about the time when in the
Middle East "the earth was divided" (Gen. 10:25). This could
correspond to the period of the emergence of the Kingdom of Akkad prior to the
fall of Sumer under Sargon the Great (2002КрамерС). In the extreme north of Mesopotamia, Assyria
(Assur) stood out, to the south lay Akkad (Upper Shinar) and Sumer, and between
the mouths of the rivers lay Chaldea (1929GarrisonFH). The chronicles available
to the co-authoring tandem preserved details of internecine wars in the
territory of the Southern Levant (Gen. 14:1–2). On the pages of our primary
source, one can discover mentions of a multitude of ethnic groups that
inhabited the lands of the Fertile Crescent (Gen. 10:5, 20, 32, 15:19–21,
26:14).
The
legislative canons of the Bronze Age found reflection in the text of the Book
of Genesis. For example, Sarah's infertility issue is resolved on the basis of
§ 145 of the Code of Hammurabi, while the conflict surrounding the status of
her son and the son of Hagar is regulated in accordance with § 146 of the laws
(1920HandcockPSP; Gen. 16:3–6). Jacob does not punish Re'uven for adultery with
a concubine, drawing upon § 194/80 of the Hittite Laws (1997HoffnerJrHA; Gen.
35:22, 49:4). In accordance with section 197/83 of these same laws act
"Shimon and Levi, Dina's brothers," who attacked Shechem and killed
all the males (1997HoffnerJrHA; Gen. 34:2, 25). Pursuant to section 27/28 of
the Laws of Eshnunna, a wedding feast is arranged as an integral part of a marriage
contract (1988YaronR; Gen. 29:22). Section 30 of the specified code infringed
upon the rights of a person who hated his city and his master and fled
(1988YaronR). For this reason, our primary source describes not an escape, but
the capture of Joseph and his sale into slavery (Gen. 37:28, 36, 40:15).
According to Mesopotamian tradition recorded in letters from the Mari archive
(ARM 35 29), Jacob slaughters livestock after concluding peace with Laban
(1988DurandJ-M; Gen. 31:54). Similarly, to the procedure for executing
agreements in Nuzi, Abraham purchases a field and a cave in the presence of
witnesses: "in the presence of the sons of Heth, before all who went in at
the gate of his city" (1928SpeiserEA; Gen. 23:18). The contracts concluded
by Abraham and Isaac before witnesses conformed to the rules existing in the
Middle Bronze Age (1920HandcockPSP; Gen. 21:27, 26:30–31). Jacob buys
exclusively a plot of land near the city of Shechem in order to avoid state
obligations under §§ 46–47 of the Hittite Laws (1997HoffnerJrHA; Gen. 33:19).
Joseph's brothers sell him into Egyptian slavery for "twenty pieces of
silver" (Gen. 37:28). The price of twenty shekels of silver is the correct
average price for a slave in the 18th century BCE (1966KitchenKA).
A
number of parallels between the Book of Genesis, on the one hand, and the
Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, on the other, have been cited above. A
significant number of them are present, as if our authors knew thoroughly or
had before their eyes the inscriptions on the coffins and walls of the
pharaohs' tombs. Among other things, they utilized plots from myths,
entertainment, and didactic literature not only of Egypt, but also of the
Hittite Kingdom and Mesopotamia. God places man in the bountiful "Garden
of Eden to cultivate it and keep it" (Gen. 2:15). As is evident from the
poem Enki and Ninhursag, the idea of paradise, the garden of the gods,
originated in Sumer (1981KramerS). In the Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh, on the
threshold of the Deluge, Utnapishtim constructs a huge vessel and saves his
family and animals on it, like the biblical Noah (Noach), and at the end of the
voyage releases a dove and a raven for reconnaissance (1961ДьяконовИМ; Gen. 7:7–9). In the Babylonian
myth of Atrahasis, the hero likewise sends forth a bird to search for land, and
the narrative relates how humans were manufactured from clay and the flesh of a
god (1999LambertWG_CivilM; Gen. 2:7). Jacob's twin, Esau, is described with
signs of excessive hairiness (Gen. 27:11). A similar appearance was possessed
by Enkidu – the sworn brother of Gilgamesh from the epic of the same name (1961ДьяконовИМ). Jacob, like the hero of the
ancient Egyptian Story of Sinuhe, flees to Asia after a conflict, is cordially
received there, establishes a family, prospers, and then returns to his
homeland (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ; Gen. 29:1, 13, 22–30, 30:43,
31:17–18). Jacob's struggle at the ford of the Jabbok, his holding fast to the
unknown adversary, and his demand for a blessing recall a Hittite ritual text
depicting a confrontation between the goddess Hebat and the king (2003УолтонДХ_ЧавалесМУ; Gen. 32:25–30). In the seduction of Joseph by
Potiphar's wife, one observes analogies with a story from the cycle Tales from
the Court of King Khufu, where a commoner is punished for adultery with the
wife of a chief lector-priest (1978КоростовцевМА; Gen. 39:7–16). In our case, the young man
acts as recommended in the Instruction of Ptahhotep: wherever you go, beware of
approaching women (1908, 2010BattiscombeG). Arriving in Egypt for grain,
Jacob's sons encounter Joseph's suspicion (Gen. 42:14). The vizier's action is
satisfactorily explained if one recalls the Instruction Addressed to King
Merikare: "Beware of subjects who are nobodies, of whose plotting one is
not aware. Trust not a brother, know not a friend" (2006LichtheimM). In
the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, the gilded serpent "obtained a
daughter through prayer" (1978КоростовцевМА). In a similar manner acts Isaac: "and
the Lord granted his plea" (Gen. 25:21). The tradition regarding Adam, who
sinned in paradise, is perceived as an illustration of the words from the story
The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant: "The gardener of evil waters his garden
with sin, so as to turn it into (a garden of) falsehood, in order to grow
calamity in his domain" (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ; Gen. 3:17–18).
In
the Book of Genesis, the work of a plant and animal breeder is artistically
described probably for the first time in history (Gen. 30:37–42). In
particular, we read: "And Jacob separated the lambs, and set the faces of
the flocks toward the streaked and all the dark among the flock of Laban; and
he put his own herds apart and did not put them with Laban's flock," and
further: "he placed the strong sheep," whereas "when the sheep
were weak, he did not place them. So, the feebler were Laban's and the stronger
Jacob's" (Gen. 30:40–42). The text also mentions a hybrid of a horse and a
donkey – the mule (Gen. 36:24). This is a clear indication of the intentional
creation of an interspecific hybrid. In the Nile Delta, animal husbandry
originated 4700 BCE (2025DaSilvaA_LenstraJA).
Specially bred domestic goats with horizontal horns and hornless cows are
depicted on a relief in the mastaba of Ti dating to the 5th Dynasty
(2014AuenmüllerJ). Today, we would say: the Old Testament livestock breeder
used scientific labor methods based on a knowledge of genetics and the
principles of selective breeding. However, the laws of inheritance were
formulated by the monk Gregor Mendel (Gregor Johann Mendel, 1822–1884) in 1865,
and confirmed 35 years later, in 1900 (2016GayonJ). Could the account of
Jacob's breeding activity in the Book of Genesis have prompted Gregor Mendel to
conduct his experiments with peas? Today, the experiments of the observant
priest are studied in secondary school, whereas in the Bronze Age they would
have been perceived as magic.
From
the verses of the epic, it is clear that Jacob was knowledgeable in veterinary
medicine, and hence so were the creators of his legend. Understanding the
physiology and needs of livestock, the biblical shepherd conducts his work such
that the sheep and goats entrusted to him "did not miscarry," but
brought forth viable offspring (Gen. 31:38). That is why Jacob grew
"exceedingly prosperous, and had large flocks" (Gen. 30:43). He was
obliged to perform the operation of bull castration (Gen. 32:6, 16, 49:6).
Apparently, he carried out the severing of tendons in domestic animals (Gen.
49:6). The specified surgical intervention is necessary so that an individual
can extend a diseased limb and walk relatively normally. From Egypt's past, the
Kahun Veterinary Papyrus has reached us, reflecting a pragmatic approach to the
treatment of ungulates during the 12th Dynasty (2016LordC). The activity of
veterinarians in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates was regulated by
the Code of Hammurabi, written around 1760 BCE (1920HandcockPSP). In the Book
of Genesis, we find a rational attitude toward animal health and discern
attempts at treatment, which corresponds to the level of veterinary medicine in
the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and the Old Babylonian period of Mesopotamia.
From
our primary source, it is clear that the authors had an understanding of
geophysics, specifically volcanology, seismology, meteorology, hydrology, and
climatology. Thus, the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah tells of an earthquake, a
volcanic eruption, and the appearance of "pillars of salt" (Gen.
19:24–25, 28). During the Deluge, Noah endured torrential rainfall (Gen. 7:12).
In connection with this cataclysm, the writers demonstrate an understanding of
the effect of gravity on water, which went down "and receded" (Gen.
8:3, 5). It is clear to them that with an increase in temperature, moisture
evaporates (Gen. 8:13, 14). Using the movement of the ark as an example,
knowledge of the property of water to displace bodies and move floating objects
is demonstrated (Gen. 7:17). Thereby, the writers reflected a guess regarding
the existence of "Archimedes' principle" and laid the foundations of
hydrodynamics. They demonstrate awareness of diurnal illumination changes,
weather changes, the succession of seasons, and agricultural periods, which is
heard in the words: "seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and
winter, day and night" (Gen. 8:22).
The
authors of the Book of Genesis demonstrate good awareness of metallurgy,
meaning they wrote after the Stone Age. Metal artifacts are present in our
primary source. The work repeatedly mentions swords (Gen. 3:24, 27:40,
34:25–26, 48:22). Abraham "took the knife to slay his son" (Gen.
22:10). The patriarch chops wood, seemingly with a bronze axe (Gen. 22:3).
Laban and Judah head out for sheep-shearing, undoubtedly with shears (Gen.
31:19, 38:12–13). Pharaoh takes off his signet ring, gives it to Joseph, and places
a gold chain around his neck (Gen. 41:42). Joseph uses a silver cup (Gen. 44:2,
12, 16–17). A cup made of precious metal is presented to the king (Gen.
40:11–13, 21). The characters' words feature a shield, apparently with metallic
elements (Gen. 15:1). Tubal-Cain, who forged "every kind of bronze and
iron," used either a stone or a bronze hammer (Gen. 4:22).
Gold
is the first named metal (Gen. 2:11–12). In the Ancient World, gold was mined
in the Hindu Kush, North Africa, the Caucasus, and the Iranian and Anatolian
plateaus. The oldest gold-bearing province in the Eastern Desert of Egypt was
exploited from the mid-4th millennium BCE (2001KlemmD_MurrA). In the ancient
Egyptian Story of Sinuhe (Middle Kingdom), the statue of the main character
"was overlaid with gold, its apron was of electrum" (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ). Electrum refers to an alloy with
silver. In a tale for Pharaoh Khufu (Westcar Papyrus, Middle Kingdom), the
handles of sandalwood oars were coated with electrum (2006LichtheimM).
According to our primary source, Abraham possessed "silver and gold"
(Gen. 13:2). Since ancient times, silver was mined in the mountains of
Anatolia. The abundance of silver artifacts in Mesopotamia is noted as early as
the 4th millennium BCE. The practice of using silver flourished in the Middle
East during the 2nd millennium BCE (1986YenerKA). Abraham's messenger, who
arrived in Mesopotamia from Canaan, presents Rebekah with "articles of
silver and articles of gold" (Gen. 24:53). The Egyptian vizier Joseph had
a silver cup for drinking and divination (Gen. 44:2, 5).
Silver
was considered the primary medium of exchange in the Hittite economic system
and most countries located in the Near Eastern Mediterranean. The named metal
was used as currency and a standard of value. For 1 shekel of silver, a sheep
could be bought, 6 shekels constituted a worker's monthly wage, 3 shekels were
paid to a physician for treating a serious head wound, and a midwife's reward
amounted to 40 shekels (2001FloreanoE). According to a letter (ARM 26/1) from
the Mari archive, 1 shekel of silver was received by the guarantor of the
prophet Lupahum (1988DurandJ-M). The Mesopotamian Mari archive dates to the
first half of the 18th century BCE (1956Munn-RankinJM). Abraham purchases a
cave and a field in Machpelah for 400 shekels of silver (Gen. 23:16–17).
"Twenty pieces of silver" were paid for Joseph upon his sale into
Egyptian slavery (Gen. 37:28).
The
creators of the Book of Genesis mention the smith Tubal-Cain, who polished and
forged "every kind of bronze and iron" (Gen. 4:22). In the first
instance, copper alloys are implied. The manufacture of jewelry from copper
nuggets in southern Anatolia began in 7400–5600 BCE (2013BirchT_PernickaE).
Around 4200 BCE, in the south of the Iranian Plateau, a transition to the use
of copper alloys – arsenical bronze – took place (2002ThorntonC_YoungSMM).
Similar metallurgy developed in Anatolia and adjacent territories from
4000–3500 BCE (2015WadsworthJ). Tin bronze has been smelted since the late 4th
to early 3rd millennium BCE in Mesopotamia, southwestern and central Iran, and
the widespread use of the alloy is dated to the mid-3rd millennium BCE
(2006NezafatiN_MomenzadehM). At the ancient metallurgical center of Timna in
the Sinai Desert, small iron ingots have been excavated, presumably obtained
accidentally during copper smelting around 3000 BCE (1972RothenbergB;
2000PenseAW). Jacob's son Judah visited the Timna Valley for sheep-shearing
(Gen. 38:12–14). The pharaoh's copper mines on the Sinai Peninsula are narrated
in the Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor (1978КоростовцевМА). A piece of iron, smelted in
3000–2700 BCE, was found in northeastern Syria, and a fragment of an iron
dagger forged around 2700 BCE was discovered at the Tell Asmar site in Iraq
(1969DartRA). During excavations of the Kaman-Kalehöyük mound in Central
Anatolia, an artifact made of terrestrial iron with a carbon content of 0.6–0.8
wt% was discovered, dated to 2100–1930 BCE (2023KucukarslanN_OmuraS). Reference
literature indicates that such a proportion of carbon is characteristic of
high-carbon steels, which are distinguished by increased hardness and strength.
Such an alloy is currently used for the production of rails, springs, blades,
and tools, including surgical ones.
In
the oasis of Haran, between northern Syria and southern Anatolia, Jacob worked
for a long time (Gen. 28:10, 31:18, 38, 41). Abraham traveled through the lands
of Iraq and sent an embassy there for a wife for his son (Gen. 11:31, 24:10).
Jacob and his sons possessed swords (Gen. 34:25–26, 48:22). Isaac knew of the
sword (Gen. 27:40). By all appearances, Abraham "armed" his troop
with swords when setting out to rescue his nephew (Gen. 14:14–16). The aforementioned
characters knew of the existence of copper alloys. Perhaps the sword guarding
the entrance to the territory of the Garden of Eden was made of bronze (Gen.
3:24). However, it cannot be denied that a steel blade was meant. The mythical
Tubal-Cain could have reforged an unintentionally obtained high-carbon steel
ingot into an article of significant strength and polished it to exceptional
sharpness. The oldest direct swords made of arsenical bronze, dating to the 3rd
millennium BCE, were revealed during excavations in Eastern Anatolia
(1998PalmieriAM_HessK). The idea of a curved blade emerged in Mesopotamia in
2700–2400 BCE (1946Maxwell-HyslopR). On the Sumerian mosaic Standard of Ur, the
silhouette of a soldier holding a sickle-sword is distinct. This panel was
found in the Early Dynastic Royal Cemetery of Ur, which ruled in 2550–2400 BCE
(2003AruzJ_WallenfelsR). The curved sword was acquired by the warriors of
Palestine and Syria in 2400–1600 BCE. Such close combat weaponry is considered
to have been adopted by the Egyptians following campaigns in Western Asia at
the end of the 12th Dynasty and under the Hyksos. Authorities immersed in the
subject believe that in Ancient Egypt, the curved battle-axe was adopted into
service during the Middle Kingdom and used in the New Kingdom
(1946Maxwell-HyslopR). Certain researchers believe that in Egypt swords,
including the curved khopesh, came into use during the Second Intermediate
Period, or in 1640–1532 BCE (2017DeanR).
In
the expression "to Abram from the Lord," a shield is spoken of in the
context of military equipment (Gen. 15:1). The text also contains mentions of a
bow, a quiver, and an archer (Gen. 21:16, 20, 27:3, 48:22, 49:24). God
recommends that Noah make a huge ark out of gopher wood (Gen. 6:14–16). This
implies at least the use of an axe. A bow, a dagger, a battle-axe, and a shield
feature in the ancient Egyptian Story of Sinuhe (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ). In other translations of the
mentioned narrative, the battle-axe (khopesh) is referred to as a sword (1956КацнельсонИС; 1978КоростовцевМА). On the Stele of the Vultures,
carved approximately around 2440 BCE, curved swords and a detachment of
spearmen with shields are distinguishable (2006HamblinWJ).
The
authors of the Book of Genesis saw chariots (Gen. 41:43, 46:29, 50:9). The
light chariot spread across the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East in
the 2nd millennium BCE and appeared in Egypt under the Hyksos
(2010FeldmanMH_SauvageC). Carts and horses are shown on the Sumerian Standard
of Ur, created in 2550–2400 BCE (2003AruzJ_WallenfelsR). In a letter from the
royal archive of Mari (ARM 26/2 285), we learn of a shortage of cedar wood for
chariots used in rituals (1988CharpinD_LafontB). Our work also speaks of
military personnel. Thus, Joseph ends up in slavery under the captain of the
king's bodyguard (Gen. 39:1, 40:3–4, 41:10–12). "Phichol, the commander of
his army," served under King Abimelech (Gen. 21:32, 26:26). Apparently,
armed horsemen are present in Jacob's funeral procession (Gen. 50:9).
Large-scale battles in the valley of the Jordan River and the Dead Sea
"took place" during Abraham's lifetime (Gen. 14:5–9). Laban mentions
those captured by weapon (Gen. 31:27). The foregoing demonstrates the writers'
understanding of military affairs and knowledge of the equipment of their
period's troops. At the same time, a Bronze Age innovation is described – the
spontaneously turning sword (Gen. 4:24). This resembles the concept of
automatic close-combat weapons. Developed technologies did not yet fully allow
for the realization of the idea of a mechanism striking an enemy without human
participation, but the thought was expressed, ahead of its time. At the same
time, the rotation of potter's flywheels on the eastern bank of the Jordan
River was developed at the end of the 5th millennium BCE (2008RouxV). In
northern Mesopotamia, the use of the potter's wheel at the site of Tell Feres
al-Sharqi is averaged to be dated around 3900 BCE, and a clay disc capable of
rotating was formed in 4700 BCE (2016BaldiJ_RouxV).
The
compilers of the Book of Genesis were not strangers to the art of music. They
show that people in their times played "the kinnor and the pipe"
(Gen. 4:21). Later in the text, entertainment with "songs, with timbrel
and with kinnor" is implied (Gen. 31:27). Special performers of the
funeral art form – mourners – are implied during the transportation of Jacob's
mummy to Canaan (Gen. 50:10). One of the oldest bone pipes, made approximately
36, 800 years ago, was found in Germany, and similar ones are encountered all
over Europe (1995HahnJ_MünzelS; 2005MorleyIRM). In the British Museum, there is
a restored lyre created in 2600 BCE in Ur (1961ВуллиЛ). The collection of the aforementioned museum
holds a Mesopotamian cylinder seal, manufactured around 3100 BCE, on which the
contours of a stringed instrument for extracting sound are engraved. On the
wall of the tomb of nomarch Ameni (Amenemhat) at Beni Hasan (12th Dynasty,
20th–18th centuries BCE), men and women playing stringed instruments resembling
harps are depicted (1893GriffithFL,a). A brief overview demonstrates that Homo
sapiens reliably engaged in music-making throughout the Upper Paleolithic, as
well as in the Middle Bronze Age.
From
the field of botany, our authors had concepts regarding the main types of
plants. They mention "seed-bearing herb, fruit tree yielding fruit
according to its kind, in which is its seed" (Gen. 1:11). Angiosperm
herbaceous and woody plants are implied here. Trees are subdivided into
"the tree pleasant to the sight and good for food, and the tree of
life," as well as "the tree of the knowledge of good and evil"
(Gen. 2:9). There is a report on specific types of trees: gopher, tamarisk, oak
(Gen. 6:14, 11:6, 21:33, 35:8). From the walnut family, mention is made of pistachio
and almond (Gen. 37:25, 43:11). According to the text, the olive tree is a
contemporary of the Deluge (Gen. 8:11). Fig leaves (sycomore, fig) were used by
Adam and Eve (Hawwa) to make skirts (Gen. 3:7). It appears that the bows
possessed by the characters of the epic were carved from acacia or carob trees
(Gen. 21:20, 27:3, 48:22, 49:24). Acacias, tamarisks, and sycamores grow in the
Nile Valley (2014КондратьеваТИ_КлимановОА).
Considering his status, Joseph's coffin was made of Lebanese cedar (Gen. 50:26).
Baskets figuring in the baker's dream are presumed to be woven from date palm
(Gen. 40:16–18).
The
text speaks of a bush (Gen. 2:5). The most interesting for the writers turns
out to be a shrub liana: the grapevine and its fruit (Gen. 9:20, 40:9–11,
49:11). Thorny bushes and weeds figure in the phrase "thorns and
thistles" (Gen. 3:18). The general concept of "green herb for
food" is also present (Gen. 1:30). Presumably, this is
"pasture," that is, fodder for livestock (Gen. 47:4). Elsewhere, this
plant variety is called "field herb" (Gen. 2:5). The storytellers
distinguish it from the reed that grew in the river (Gen. 41:2). A group of
spice plants is spoken of separately (Gen. 37:25, 43:11). It is clear that
these are herbs, bushes, and trees. Resinous plants (frankincense trees,
Commiphora, Styrax) are concealed behind the concept of "balm" (Gen.
37:25, 43:11). A family conflict flares up around the medicinal flowering plant
"mandrake" (Gen. 30:14–16). Isaac "sowed" wheat or barley
(Gen. 26:12). Jacob's sons bound sheaves in a field of cereals (Gen. 37:7).
Wheat was cultivated in Haran (Gen. 30:14). On the eve of the cataclysm, Joseph
harvests certain grain crops and then distributes their seeds (Gen. 41:49,
47:23). Jacob cooks lentils and also bakes bread (from wheat?) before the
arrival of his hunting brother (Gen. 25:29–30, 34). The dish that the latter
prepared "of the red, this red" could have been made of red barley
(Gen. 25:30). In a saying from the collection of Coffin Texts (c. 2134–2040
BCE), we read: "I eat of red emmer, and seven loaves are in the sky in On
[Heliopolis] with Re, seven portions are [on earth] with Geb, seven portions
are with Osiris." (1973FaulknerRO). In the Book of the Dead (New Kingdom),
beer is spoken of that "is brewed from red barley of the Nile" (2003БаджЭАУ). Porridge from this ancient cereal
possesses a reddish tint.
The
creators of the Book of Genesis demonstrated a body of knowledge regarding
fauna as well. Small species of aquatic animals, seemingly arthropods, are
concealed in the words "let the waters swarm with swarms of living
creatures" (Gen. 1:20). The verses mention the creation of "great sea
monsters" (Gen. 1:20). Hypothetically, these were sharks, dolphins, sperm
whales, or fin whales encountered in the Mediterranean and Red seas. "Sea
fish" implies cartilaginous and bony fish species inhabiting oceans and
seas (Gen. 1:26, 28, 9:2). "Creeping things" ("gadim")
likely referred to insects, amphibians, and reptiles (Gen. 1:24, 26, 6:7, 7:14,
21, 23, 8:17, 19). Amphibians are probably concealed under the name of
"creeping things with which the water swarmed" (Gen. 1:21). Moreover,
"all creeping things that creep on the earth" evidently refers to
reptiles (Gen. 1:26, 8:17). "All the creeping things of the earth" should
also be classed here (Gen. 1:25). Among reptiles, the fabulous serpent stands
out (Gen. 3:1–4, 14). A real venomous snake is called an "asp" (Gen.
49:17). Lizards, turtles, and crocodiles inhabiting Egypt do not figure in the
text. There are no words about dinosaurs either. Birds are repeatedly mentioned
(Gen. 1:20, 22, 6:20, 7:8, 9:10, 15:10, 40:17, 19). Here it is appropriate to
think of carinate (flying) and ratite (running) birds. In certain cases,
representatives of the class of birds are referred to as "birds of the
heavens" (Gen. 1:26, 28, 30, 2:19–20, 6:7, 7:3, 14, 21, 23, 8:17, 19,
9:1). These are carinate birds (neornithes) adapted for flight. The separate
category of "clean birds" is not elaborated upon (Gen. 8:20).
Presumably, this refers to poultry. The mysterious groups singled out by
biblical systematizers include "every flying creature according to its
kind" and "every winged creature" (Gen. 7:14). Here it is
preferable to think of: bats, flying squirrels, flying insects,
"flying" fish, and flying dragons (lizards).
Mammals
are represented by the group of "beasts of the earth," as well as a
second group of domestic animals: "cattle according to their kind"
(Gen. 1:24–25). At a stretch, these are mammals used in agriculture, whereas
the former reside in nature. The listed systematic units are mentioned further
down in the text as well (Gen. 7:14, 21, 8:1). Among the wild species, we
discover "beasts of the field" (Gen. 2:20, 3:1, 14). Apparently, this
is a distinct category of "beasts of the earth" (Gen. 9:10). Wild
animals included the "predatory beast" (Gen. 37:20, 33). Within the
specified subgroup of "beasts of the earth" were the "predatory
wolf" and the "lion" (Gen. 49:9, 27). Of wild herbivores, the
deer is reported (Gen. 49:21).
Domestic
livestock and wild beasts were divided into clean and unclean. Noah sacrifices
only from "clean cattle" (Gen. 8:20). In the ark, he saves "of
every clean beast" and "of beasts that are not clean" (Gen. 7:2,
8). Later, distinction is made between large and small livestock (Gen.
21:27–28, 26:14). The text contains lists of domestic mammal species: goats
(he-goats), sheep (rams), donkeys (she-donkeys), horses (steeds), mules, camels
(she-camels), cows, and castrated bulls – oxen (Gen. 12:16, 30:33, 31:17,
32:15–16, 36:24, 47:17, 49:6, 11, 14, 17). The domestication of camels occurred
at the beginning of the third millennium BCE in their natural habitats: the
dromedary (one-humped camel) in southeast Arabia, and the Bactrian (two-humped
camel) in southwest Central Asia. Within the territory of Egypt, several
artifacts have been discovered, including a vessel in the form of a couchant
camel (1st Dynasty), several camel models (4th Dynasty), a depiction of a camel
caravan (6th Dynasty), and an image and inscription dating back to the 19th
century BCE found in the Sinai (2017SalaR).
The
work reflects a materialistic attitude toward animal reproduction: the
requirement for female and male organisms (Gen. 7:2–3, 15–16). An understanding
of the pathology of livestock pregnancy – spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) – is
noticeable (Gen. 31:38). By including man in the zoological systematics of
species, the authors demonstrated knowledge of physiology as well. Humans, as a
rule, are born as a result of the interaction of two sexes (Gen. 4:1, 17, 6:4).
An exception was the appearance of the first pair of representatives of
humanity. Here the writers lacked a clear understanding, and therefore set
forth two hypotheses simultaneously (Gen. 1:26–27, 2:6). In the text, one
discerns an echo of the oldest discussion on the evolution of the human genus
that took place between the co-authors. The writers did not reach a consensus;
each retained his own opinion.
The
study of the Book of Genesis allows one to refine the list of technologies
known to the compilers. Their contemporaries utilized rotation in engineering,
which means they constructed mechanisms (Gen. 3:24). The mention of a pitcher
implies knowledge of the rotating flywheel and pottery (Gen. 24:14–20). Mastery
in metalworking is evidenced by the characterization of Tubal-Cain as "a
polisher and forger of every kind of bronze and iron" (Gen. 4:22).
Competence in jewelry crafting is traced in the words about the ring and
bracelets sent by Abraham, in the account of the earrings of Jacob's
companions, in the stories of Pharaoh's and Joseph's cups, as well as the
presentation of a gold chain and signet ring to him (Gen. 24:22, 30, 35:4,
40:11, 13, 21, 41:42, 44:2, 12, 16–17). In the latter case, this refers to scarab
seals that appeared during the Middle Kingdom. They ensured the security of
documents and the contents of containers (2021NoonanBJ).
By
the time of the emergence of our primary source, people knew how to assemble
wagons and chariots – that is, they used vehicles (Gen. 41:43, 45:19, 21, 46:5,
29, 50:9). We infer the mastery of the weaving craft from the mention of
"fine linen" (byssus) and garments (Gen. 41:42, 44:13, 45:22, 49:11).
Horticulture features in the text from the second chapter, while in the third
chapter field cultivation, harvesting grain, and baking bread are hinted at
(Gen. 2:8–9, 3:19). The cultivation of grapes and winemaking are
"invented" by Noah after the Deluge (Gen. 9:20–21). The existence of
scales and the application of the lever principle are evidenced by the legend
of the purchase of the field, in which Abraham "weighed out" the
silver (Gen. 23:16). Construction and architecture are assumed in the stories
of house and booths, cities and tower (Gen. 11:4–5, 8, 13:12, 23:10, 33:17).
Noah was skilled in carpentry and the properties of bitumen (Gen. 6:14, 22).
Further down, it is explained that the latter was extracted from "asphalt
pits" (Gen. 13:10). Seafaring and shipbuilding are not overlooked by the
authors (Gen. 49:13). During the writers' time, overland trade with distant
territories was also conducted (Gen. 37:25, 28). Caravans traveled to deposits
of gold, silver, and onyx, and also transported slaves, "spices, balm, and
lot" (Gen. 2:11–12, 13:2, 37:25, 28, 36). Indisputably, the dairy industry
was already emerging: the production of milk and butter (Gen. 18:8).
Undoubtedly, during the compilers' time, humanity had mastered tailoring and
the processing of animal skins (Gen. 3:7, 12). Harnesses and saddles were
preferably made of leather (Gen. 31:17, 34, 49:17). Spinning, knitting, and
felting are logical actions following wool harvesting (Gen. 31:19, 38:13).
According to the text, people actively used fire for cooking, including in
furnaces/ovens (Gen. 15:17, 18:7, 25:29). They established the manufacture of
military equipment: knives, swords, bows, shields (Gen. 14:1, 21:20, 22:6, 10,
26:3, 27:40, 34:25–26). The complex of anatomical knowledge regarding internal
organs included knowledge of bones, joints, muscles, sinews (ligaments and
tendons), fat, and the heart (Gen. 2:23, 8:21, 9:5–6, 27:28, 39, 29:14, 32:26, 33,
37:26, 45:18, 49:6, 24). Veterinary science and medicine developed to the stage
of meaningful surgical practice in the form of castration and tenotomy in
animals, as well as circumcision in humans (Gen. 17:10–14, 23–27, 21:4, 24:35,
32:6, 16, 34:15–17, 22–24, 49:6). The apotheosis appears to be the surgical
intervention project involving rib resection – essentially thoracotomy under
anesthesia with post-operative wound closure (Gen. 2:21). In the primary
source, we discern a foresight of genetic engineering and the modification of a
somatic cell into a reproductive one, followed by the incubation of a person of
a different sex (Gen. 2:22).
Thus,
before the reader's gaze stands the world of a developed, dynamic civilization.
The textual observations made do not claim to cover the topic comprehensively.
We have merely attempted to demonstrate in general terms the depth and breadth
of the compilers' knowledge. Their exceptional erudition is discussed in
somewhat greater detail in our monographs 50 Tables of Evidence and Children of
Men (2025АрхиповСВ;
2026ArkhipovSV). A brief overview of technologies and scientific knowledge
demonstrates that the compilers of the Book of Genesis were contemporaries of
the Middle Bronze Age. They wrote at the end of the Second Intermediate Period,
when the use of light chariots began in Egypt. Presumably, one of the writers
possessed medical training and an extremely broad knowledge base. Thanks to the
unknown polymath, the epic literary work became comparable to an encyclopedia.
The interdisciplinary approach to literary work, applied for the first time in
history, proved to be extraordinarily successful. The book continues to spark
interest to this day. Translators of subsequent eras did not dare strip the
humble ancient Egyptian erudites of their authorship. In the second part of the
biblical epic, the mythical Moses declared that he described only the events of
deliverance from the power of Pharaoh and the departure of the Judean tribe
from Egypt (Exod. 17:14, 18:8).
Title & Contents / Chapter 1 / Chapter 2 / Chapter 3 / Chapter 4 / Chapter 5 / Chapter 6 / Chapter 7 / Chapter 8 / Chapter 9 / Chapter 10 / Chapter 11 / Chapter 12 / Chapter 13 / Chapter 14 / Chapter 15 / Chapter 16 / Chapter 17 / Chapter 18 / Chapter 19 / Chapter 20 / Chapter 21 / Chapter 22 / Chapter 23 / Chapter 24 / Chapter 25 / References / Notes
Russian-language version:
Титул и оглавление / Глава 1 / Глава 2 / Глава 3 / Глава 4 / Глава 5 / Глава 6 / Глава 7 / Глава 8 / Глава 9 / Глава 10 / Глава 11 / Глава 12 / Глава 13 / Глава 14 / Глава 15 / Глава 16 / Глава 17 / Глава 18 / Глава 19 / Глава 20 / Глава 21 / Глава 22 / Глава 23 / Глава 24 / Глава 25 / Список литературы
Author of the publication
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, e-mail: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Publication history
October 23, 2026 - online version of the book is published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. Medical Record: The Contribution of a Middle Bronze Age Egyptian Physician to the Book of Genesis. The Bronze Age Encyclopedia. About the round ligament of the femur. October 23, 2026. https://roundligament.blogspot.com/2026/10/medical-record-chapter-4.html
Note
Keywords
hip joint, hip dislocation, osteoarthritis, ligament of the head of femur, ligamentum teres, ligamentum capitis femoris, Minoan Eruption, Bronze Age, Ancient Medicine, Ancient Egypt, Edwin Smith Papyrus, Biblical Chronology, Genesis, Genesis Protograph, Bereshit
NB! Fair practice / use: copied for the purposes of criticism, review, comment, research and private study in accordance with Copyright Laws of the US: 17 U.S.C. §107; Copyright Law of the EU: Dir. 2001/29/EC, art.5/3a,d; Copyright Law of the RU: ГК РФ ст.1274/1.1-2,7
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