Book manuscript: Arkhipov S.V. Medical Record: The Contribution of a Middle Bronze Age Egyptian Physician to the Book of Genesis. Kyrö: Author’s Edition, 2026. – 312 pp. – 2 tables. – Bibliographical references: 856 entries. play.google.com , books.google.com
Chapter 2
Chronology of the Medical Record
When reading the Book of Genesis, we learn that the first recorded patient with an injury to the ligament of the head of femur was a man named Ya'akov (Gen. 32:25, 33). In adapted usage, the name is rendered as Jacob. According to the narrative, he was born near the well of Beer-Lahai-Roi, between Kadesh and Bered in the Negev Desert, which is in the south of the "Canaanite" land (Gen. 16:14, 23:19, 24:62). As is clear from the text, the "Canaanite land" is the western part of the current State of Israel, excluding the vicinity of the Jordan River (Gen. 13:11–12).
Jacob's father was Yitzchak
(Isaac), son of Abraham and grandson of Terach, while his mother was Rebekah
(Rivkah), daughter of Bethuel, son of Nachor, Abraham's full brother (Gen.
11:26, 21:3, 22:20–23). Jacob was born from a multiple pregnancy and had a twin
brother with a genetic anomaly known as hypertrichosis (Gen. 25:24–25). At
birth, his arm appeared to have been injured, as the delivery was complicated
by premature limb presentation (Gen. 25:26). Our "patient" grew and
developed in prosperity, within a tribe engaged in hunting, agriculture, and
nomadic livestock breeding (Gen. 25:27, 26:12–14, 46:34, 47:3). The boy
undoubtedly acquired animal handling skills under the guidance of his father,
an experienced shepherd (Gen. 26:14). Education was presumably facilitated by
his mother, whose childhood was spent in enlightened Mesopotamia (Gen. 25:20).
At the very least, the son could easily count up to one thousand (Gen.
32:15–16). Literacy may be evidenced by the transaction to acquire a plot of
land (Gen. 33:19). Similar operations in the Bronze Age Levant and Mesopotamia
were recorded on cuneiform tablets.
Until the age of forty, Jacob lived with his
parents (Gen. 26:34). Following a conflict with his twin, he departed for Haran
to his mother's brother (Gen. 27:43, 28:2). There, the migrant acquired a large
family and successfully engaged in livestock breeding (Gen. 29:22–35, 30:43).
After twenty years of work in Haran, with his acquired possessions and
household members, Jacob set off for his homeland (Gen. 31:18, 38, 41).
Consequently, at the time of the journey, he was about sixty years old. During
a mysterious episode of the journey, an injury to the hip joint occurred,
resulting in the character developing a limp "in his thigh" (Gen.
32:26, 32).
After the injury, Jacob continued farming in the
land of Canaan (Gen. 33:18, 36:6–7, 37:1). During a period of widespread famine
at the age of 130, the patriarch relocated with his family to Egypt (Gen.
41:54, 43:1, 46:6, 47:9). Seventeen years later, Jacob died, having lived 147
years (Gen. 47:27–28, 49:33). The body of the deceased was embalmed in Egypt
and buried in the Judean Mountains, in the cave of the field of Machpelah near
the oak grove of Mamre at Hebron (Gen. 13:18, 23:19, 50:2, 13). Thus, the
co-authors of the epic laid out the life path of Jacob – the most influential
character in the Old Testament saga.
The oldest written source clarifying the
chronology of the patriarchs' lives is the Book of Jubilees, composed in
153–105 BCE (1913CharlesRH). It is expected to contain the most accurate dates
pertaining to the 18th–16th centuries BCE. However, the Book of Jubilees was
compiled centuries after the death of the literary Jacob. This significant time
gap naturally raises doubts regarding the reliability of the dates in the work
and requires verification. Verification of the lifespan of Jacob's prototype is
also necessary to clarify the chronology of events in the Book of Genesis. By analyzing the internal evidence of the primary
source, we concluded that it is possible to date them.
The starting point is taken to be the period of
Jacob's family migrating to Egypt. In the book, this time interval is
designated as a "famine" that, once begun, later intensified (Gen.
41:54, 43:1, 46:6). Apparently, the disaster was caused by sharp cooling and
agricultural depression following a two-phase eruption of the Santorini volcano
on the island of Thera in the Mediterranean Sea, which was distinguished by
extreme destructiveness (2014JohnsonEN_CareyS). Based on preserved insect
remains on the island from that era, it was determined that Santorini
"awoke" in the summer after the harvest in June or early July
(2013PanagiotakopuluE_DoumasC). Thus, humanitarian consequences would have been
observed in distant territories in the year following the Minoan catastrophe,
with their escalation occurring approximately another year later.
The main eruption of Santorini was preceded by a
series of explosions releasing and displacing over 1 million cubic metres of
ash southward several days or weeks before the main events began. This was
followed by an energy-rich expulsion of volcanic ash and gases swept eastward
by stratospheric winds. During this eruption – the largest in the last 10,000
years – between 48 and 86 cubic kilometres of magma and rock fragments were
ejected (2019DruittTH_VougioukalakisGE). Accordingly, the first portion of
gases and ash moved toward North Africa, and the second in the direction of the
Levant. This may explain why the "famine" featured in the Book of Genesis was observed "in all lands" (Gen. 41:54).
Indeed, the text states: "all the land of Egypt began to suffer
famine" (Gen. 41:55). The following verse tells of crop failures in both
southern Egypt and the Nile Delta (Gen. 41:56). These territories were
officially designated by Egyptians as the "Two Lands," and they also
distinguished the "Black Land" – fertile – and the "Red
Land" – desert (2004РакИВ).
Further in our primary source, evidence appears
of agricultural decline in adjacent regions: "And all countries came into
Egypt to buy [grain]" (Gen. 41:57). One toponym is named explicitly:
"the famine was in the land of Canaan" (Gen. 42:5). What has been
said implies that long-term climate change occurred in the southern Levant as
well. From the subsequent narrative, it is appropriate to assume that during
the humanitarian cataclysm, Canaan was within Egypt's sphere of influence.
Grain was sold to "all the people of the land," including those
living "in the land of Canaan" (Gen. 42:5–6). Such close interaction
first emerges under the rule of foreign kings (Hyksos) in northern Egypt, who
had extensive commercial and cultural ties with the Levant and Middle Eastern
states (2012BietakM; 2021BietakM_RensburgA). Later, in the early 16th century,
Levantine imports to the Hyksos capital of Avaris became limited to Canaanite
jars – more precisely, their contents (2021VilainS). In addition to reduced
agricultural productivity, an adverse effect was also noted on livestock
breeding. The text makes clear: "the famine is severe in the land of
Canaan," "there is no pasture for the flocks" (Gen. 47:4).
Consequently, pastures in the southern Levant lost forage grasses. Such a
complex impact on both components of agriculture can be caused by cooling,
reduced solar irradiance, excessive moisture, and soil acidification resulting
from a powerful volcanic process.
Following the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883,
anomalous cooling was recorded almost worldwide for two years (2009SchallerN_BrönnimannS). In 1884 and 1885, the duration of daily sunshine
decreased even on the Iberian Peninsula (2020ObregónMA_VaqueroJM). In June
1991, the largest recent eruption occurred at Mount Pinatubo (2004GuoS_WatsonIM).
Volcanic aerosol particles persisted in the atmosphere for a long time, causing
a maximum continent-averaged cooling in 1992 and 1993 of approximately 0.5 °C
in September–November (2002YangF_SchlesingerME).
There is an opinion that the activation of the
Santorini volcano is reflected on the Tempest Stela, carved at the beginning of
the 18th Dynasty. On this calcite block, an unprecedented cataclysm with
consequences for all of Egypt is described on behalf of Pharaoh Ahmose. The
text mentions human casualties (poisoning, disease?) and the destruction of
structures (earthquake?). Signs of climate change are indicated: a
"tempest" with heavy rain, loud noise (eruption?), darkness (dense
cloud cover?), and thunderstorms (volcanic lightning?). At the same time,
storms and abnormal precipitation likely did not cease for several years
(2014RitnerRK_MoellerN). The deposition of ash from the Minoan eruption in the
eastern Nile Delta, presumably during the reign of the pharaohs of the 18th
Dynasty, has been proven by field studies (1986StanleyDJ_ShengH). Based on the
dating of museum artifacts belonging to the Second Intermediate Period, it was
concluded that the powerful Minoan eruption dates to the end of the 17th
Dynasty and preceded the 18th Dynasty, specifically the reign of King Ahmose
(2025BruinsHJ_VanDerPlichtJ).
Ahmose's opponents, the Hyksos, also noted
extraordinary phenomena in northern Egypt. These were reflected in the Rhind
Mathematical Papyrus, dated to the 33rd year of the reign of Apophis I, who
flourished approximately in 1585–1553 BCE. The document contains an addendum:
during an unusual period, in early September of the 11th year of the reign of
an unidentified king, thunder pealed during the celebration of the birthday of
the god Seth, and the next day an uncharacteristic seasonal rain fell
(1923PeetTE). Archaeological studies conducted in Anatolia, the Levant, and on
the island of Thera provide strong reasons to believe that Minoan volcanic
aerosols caused torrential rains (2017TheodorakopoulouK_AlçiçekCM). Increased
precipitation in the Eastern Mediterranean led to overflowing watercourses and
floods, which could be regarded as a "deluge"
(2018AthanassasCD_TheodorakopoulouK). Tree-ring anomalies in Anatolia
demonstrate that this hydrological episode lasted, according to rough
estimates, about 3.5 years (2009PearsonCL_ManningSW). This is indirectly
supported by the Hittite legend of Telepinu, which mentions changes in
riverbeds and the flooding of rivers in Asia Minor (1958GoetzeA).
The Anatolian myth of the god Telepinu describes
events reminiscent of those experienced by Ahmose's contemporaries. The legend
states that the enraged god Telepinu leaves the world, taking with him all the
fruits and powers of the earth. Wheat and emmer did not ripen; cattle, sheep,
and humans ceased to reproduce. The grass withered, and trees dried up and
produced no new shoots. Pastures dried up, and water sources dried up. Famine
broke out in the land, from which humans and gods perished. After Telepinu was
stung by a bee, he flew into an even greater rage. Thunder pealed and lightning
flashed. He stopped the murmuring of springs, diverted flowing rivers and
forced them to overflow their banks, filled up quarries, shattered windows,
destroyed houses, and brought about the destruction of people, sheep, and
cattle (1958GoetzeA). Telepinu, a Hittite and Hurrian god of fertility and
vegetation, was revered between 1800–1100 BCE (2004JordanM). The myth itself is
attributed to the Old Hittite period, that is, to the 17th–16th centuries BCE
(2002BryceT; 2022BecharS).
There are strong reasons to believe that the
ancient Egyptian work The Admonitions of Ipuwer describes a disaster during the
Hyksos period, more precisely the first half to middle of the 17th century BCE,
although paleographically the papyrus dates to the reign of the 19th Dynasty
(2010Ильин-ТомичАА_СафроновАВ). An analysis of M.A. Korostovtsev's translation
reveals a description of the climate cataclysm of the Second Intermediate
Period caused by the Minoan eruption (1978КоростовцевМА). The mention in The Admonitions of Ipuwer of
native inhabitants of the Delta with shields, and the exclamations "foreigners
everywhere have become Egyptians and do not give Egypt over to the dwellers of
the sand!" suggest that the narrative is told from the perspective of a
subject of the 17th Dynasty, which existed concurrently with the hostile
Hyksos. In the text we read: the Nile overflows, yet no one plows for it, women
are now barren, they no longer become pregnant, disaster has spread throughout
the land ... death, a multitude of dead, people have become few and do not bury
the deceased, everything falls into decay, they say: we do not know what has
happened in the land, and the land is in desolation, nobles perish from hunger,
people eat grass and wash it down with water. They snatch food from the mouths
of swine out of hunger, grain perishes everywhere, the many kill the few,
turmoil reigns in the land for years (1978КоростовцевМА). Among other things, it is clear from the text
that the influx of valuable goods from outside the state ceased, and a shortage
of raw materials began to be felt. Such a situation is possible during
territorial isolation, the disorganisation of
producing countries, the severance of overland trade routes, and the
destruction of maritime infrastructure and ships. Similar processes were
observed toward the end of the Hyksos reign, which is explained by a
combination of internal and external factors that triggered the crisis: social
stress, profound social changes, threats to the state, and the depletion of
resources (2021VilainS).
The Hearst Medical Papyrus (early 16th century
BCE) contains a mention of a flood in northern Egypt in the phrase Seth
summoned the sea, which was likely caused by a tsunami following the eruption
of the Santorini volcano (1992GoedickeH). The text shares a logical connection
with the aforementioned Rhind Mathematical Papyrus through the same deity's
name and a similar anomalous phenomenon. The Apophis featured in it appears to
have practiced monotheism, worshipping the same Seth. According to the tale The
Hyksos King Apopi and Pharaoh Seqenenre, this ruler "chose
the god Seth" as his patron (1958КацнельсонИС_МендельсонФЛ). King
Apophis (c. 1565–1540 BCE), for political or religious reasons, made Seth-Baal
the sole god in the capital Avaris (2006GoldwasserO). Notably, Jacob also
instituted the worship of a single unnamed deity within his family (Gen.
35:2–3). The single God instructed Noah and made a covenant with him (Gen.
6:13–22, 7:1–9, 9:1–17). A single God speaks to and forms an alliance with
Abraham (Gen. 15:13–21). These circumstances testify in favor of the Book of Genesis being written during the Hyksos reign, when a mixing
of emigrants' religious practices occurred in the Nile Delta and Egyptian
beliefs were not dominant. Biblical monotheism anticipated Apophis's theological doctrine, rather
than being an imitation of it.
In the Book of Genesis, Jacob mentions the "God of Abraham"
alongside another epithet, "Fear of Isaac" (Gen. 31:42). Abraham was
born in Ur of the Chaldees in Mesopotamia (Gen. 11:27–28, 31). At that time,
the patriarch worshiped the supreme deity of that city named Nanna (Nannar),
which in Old Akkadian means "lord of knowledge" (1961ВуллиЛ; 1990АфанасьеваВК). Jacob's wives and father-in-law Laban inherited the
patron deity of their grandfather – the "God of Nachor" (Gen. 31:42).
Those residing in Haran predominantly prayed to Sin, the Akkadian moon god
(2002PingreeD). It seems that Jacob demands his relatives renounce this god and
the Mesopotamian pantheon: "So they gave to Ya'akov all the foreign
gods" (Gen. 35:2, 4). Thus, through monotheism, a step was taken toward a
theocratic monarchy and presidential authority within a confessional state.
According to a Bayesian model, the eruption of
the Santorini volcano took place in the late 17th century BCE, when Northern
Egypt was controlled by the Canaanite Dynasty (2006ManningSW_WildEM). Based on
radiocarbon analysis of organic material, it was established that volcanic
activity was observed between 1663 and 1599 BCE, and when using samples from
reliable contexts, the range narrows to 1662–1608 BCE
(2004RamseyCB_GalimbertiM).
The aforementioned period is corroborated by
dating an olive branch buried during the Minoan eruption. Examination of the
said fossil sample showed that the volcanic explosion on the island of Thera
occurred in 1627–1600 BCE with 95% confidence, and with a 68% probability – in
1621–1605 BCE (2006FriedrichWL_TalamoS). A recent re-evaluation of refined
Mediterranean plant material showed that the Santorini volcano was active with
a 65.8–74.5% confidence in 1619–1596 BCE (2020ManningSW_TegelW). An analysis of
new radiocarbon dating evidence points to the highest probability of an
eruption around 1600 BCE (2026ErdilP_DeeMW). The minimum ring-width of pine
samples grown in the 16th century BCE in the subarctic belt of the Northern
Hemisphere is dated to 1597 BCE, which may indicate the Minoan catastrophe
(2007SalzerMW_HughesMK). Individual research teams find an eruption on the
island of Thera acceptable in the range of 1580–1520 BCE
(2018PearsonCL_SalzerMW). There is an opinion that Santorini exploded 1560±50
BCE (2024FantuzziT). For completeness, one cannot fail to note the position of
several researchers according to whom the Minoan eruption in 1525 BCE better
matches the historical and archaeological dating range in the Nile Delta
(2015WienerMH_EarleJW; 2021BietakM).
According to the results of the GISP2 project,
which studies the composition of Greenland fossil ice, the largest Bronze Age
sulfate signal implying volcanic ash dates to 1695 BCE
(1997ClausenHB_LegrandM). Meanwhile, dating chemical compounds in Greenland ice
requires a correction of approximately 80 years for dates around 3,600 years
ago counted from 1950, and for ages older than 3,400 years – about 60 years
(1998StuiverM_SpurkM; 2004SouthonJ). Consequently, for 1695 BCE, a correction
of approximately 85 years (specifically, 84.5 years) is necessary. Relying on
this, we conclude that the anomalous amount of sulphate with precipitation in Greenland fell in 1610
BCE, more precisely, between 1610 and 1611 BCE (1695 – 85/84.5 = 1610/1610.5).
These dates fall within the interval of the consensus estimate by the
Smithsonian Institution's Global Volcanism Program, which indicates the onset
of the Minoan catastrophe in 1610±14 BCE (volcano.si.edu). In our view, this relatively wide period is
due to the activation of Santorini's fumaroles long before the explosion, as
well as gas production for some time after the eruption. This is supported by
the plateau between 1620 and 1540 BCE discovered on traditional calibration
curves for wood material dating (2018PearsonCL_SalzerMW; 2020PearsonC_HodginsG;
2021BietakM).
A. Dickin (2024), having critically evaluated
the material accumulated by science, believes that the aggregate of available
data confirms the explosion on the island of Thera in 1611 BCE. S.W. Manning
(2024) suggests that it is appropriate to date the Minoan catastrophe to the
end of the 17th or the beginning of the 16th century BCE, "for example,
1611 BCE." These views are consistent with archaeological findings proving
a significant influx of settlers into Avaris in 1610–1590 BCE (2005BoothC). Mass
migration could have been caused by the consequences of the Minoan cataclysm in
the form of acid rain, cooling, and the contamination of drinking sources with
volcanic ash and dust in the lands of the Levant. According to our hypothesis,
such circumstances forced Jacob's prototype and his relatives to migrate to
Egypt (Gen. 46:6, 27–28). Moreover, it was assumed that the family would dwell
there for a limited time, since the nomads came only "to sojourn,"
rather than to settle permanently, but they did become settled (Gen. 47:4, 27).
This can be explained by the multi-year consequences of Minoan volcanism.
We believe that Santorini became active in late
1611 BCE. The main eruption occurred in 1610 BCE. Between these dates, there
was a brief bright interval during which the inhabitants of Akrotiri returned
before finally abandoning the island of Thera prior to the explosion
(2020EvansKJ_McCoyFW). Then, according to our version, the biblical
"famine in all lands" began (Gen. 41:54). It was caused by crop failures
and livestock mortality due to the loss of pastures around 1609 BCE. At this
point, Jacob's son Joseph
(Yossef) was 37 years old
(Gen. 41:46–48, 53). Consequently, having reached seventeen years of age, he
arrived in Egypt in 1629 BCE (Gen. 37:2, 28, 36). In 1640 BCE, at the age of
six, Joseph left Haran with his parents (Gen. 31:17–18, 41). Calculations show
that Jacob's penultimate son was born approximately in 1646 BCE (Gen.
30:22–23). By this time, the father had worked in Mesopotamia for fourteen
years (Gen. 31:41). Therefore, Jacob arrived there in 1660 BCE (Gen. 27:43,
28:10, 29:1–4). It is thought that on the date of his departure from his
parental home, he was 17 years old, not 40 (Gen. 26:34). The aging of the
character is a common artistic device allowing wisdom and experience to be
imparted. If our reasoning is correct, Jacob was born roughly in 1677 BCE (Gen.
25:26). He brings his family to Egypt in the second year of the
"famine" (Gen. 45:6, 10–11, 46:6, 28). That is, the migration of Jacob's
clan to the banks of the Nile, according to the preferred scenario, took place
in 1607 BCE.
Aside from refining the chronology of Jacob's
life, our primary source provides clues for dating Abraham's wanderings. It is
narrated that he departs with his father and wife from the city of "Ur of
the Chaldees" to "Haran" (Gen. 11:31). In Egypt, girls were
given in marriage upon reaching maturity, between 12 and 14 years of age,
though instances of earlier marriage are known (2016ДжарманОА_МикиртичанГЛ). Since Egyptians were involved in the composition of
our primary source, the literary Sarah acquired her family within the specified
interval. Following her mention, it is stated: "Sarai was barren; she had
no child" (Gen. 11:30). This is noted no less than 1–2 years after
entering into marriage. It seems plausible that upon the exodus from Ur,
Abraham was 25 years old, and Sarah was ten years younger (Gen. 17:17).
From our perspective, Terach, Abraham, Sarah,
and Lot flee their native places, escaping an invasion by foreign tribes (Gen.
11:31). It is assumed that Ur was burned and pillaged in 1737 BCE by the
Babylonian king Samsu-iluna, who ruled in 1749–1712 BCE (1961ВуллиЛ; 2000GraysonAK). A document compiled in the
eleventh year of Samsu-iluna's reign has been found, which recounts the
destruction of the walls of Ur and Uruk (2013SeriA). Examination of this record
and context showed that the fortifications, public buildings, and private homes
in Ur were destroyed in 1739 BCE, but more likely in 1740 BCE (1969BrinkmanJA).
Based on the foregoing, we conclude that the formerly sedentary farmers Abraham
and Sarah left Ur between 1740 and 1737 BCE, most likely in 1740 BCE. After
some time, the wanderers reached Egypt (Gen. 12:10, 14).
Migrants from the eastern part of the Fertile
Crescent, including Mesopotamia, appeared in the Nile Valley no later than
2855–2570 BCE, as evidenced by the genome of an Egyptian potter
(2025MorezJacobsA_Girdland-FlinkL). Inhabitants of Western Asia settled along
the banks of the Nile during the Middle Kingdom and lived there for centuries
(2020StantisC_SchutkowskiH). In the work of this period, The Admonitions of
Ipuwer, we find: "Foreigners have flooded Egypt. Indeed, there are no
longer Egyptians anywhere," and further down we read: "Foreigners
have become skilled in the crafts of the Delta" (1978КоростовцевМА). A procession of Asiatics in Egypt is depicted
on the wall painting of the tomb of the official Khnumhotep II, built in
1897–1878 BCE (2009KamrinJ).
Following the "appointment" of Sarah
as the pharaoh's wife, an epidemic breaks out in the palace (Gen. 12:15, 17).
This is followed by a description of extreme anxiety on the part of the ruler,
who expels Abraham's family from the country (Gen. 12:18, 20). Behind the
scenes, highly alarming events can be discerned. The disease that struck the
king and courtiers apparently turned out to be an especially dangerous
infection. At the end of the rule of the 13th Dynasty, the northeastern Nile
Delta in the area of the archaeological site of Tell el-Dab'a (Avaris)
experienced a crisis and was partially abandoned. Emergency burials from the
period of 1740–1710 BCE have been excavated on its territory, indicating that
an epidemic swept through the city caused by an unidentified pathogen (1996, 2012BietakM).
Abraham's caravan entered Egypt from the direction of Canaan (Gen. 12:10, 14).
The family, which necessarily crossed the Nile Delta from northeast to
southwest, undoubtedly bypassed Avaris.
The chronicle of Egyptian dynasties relates that
King Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep (or rather, Sahathor) died in 1733 BCE, and
Neferhotep I in 1731 BCE. Earlier, in 1732 BCE, his brother Sobekhotep IV
succeeded to the throne. Sahathor was listed as a dependent pharaoh for several
months and apparently died during the reign of Neferhotep I
(1997RyholtKS_Bülow-JacobsenA). It should be noted that the given dates are
approximate and sometimes shift significantly in both directions in various
sources. There is an opinion that Sahathor passed away in 1730 BCE, becoming
the successor of his brother Neferhotep I, with whom he may have had a brief
coregency (2002BunsonMR). Other researchers also believe that Sahathor was a
coregent and passed away due to an untimely death in less than a year, but the
possibility cannot be excluded that the three brothers simply reigned
consecutively (2016NealeH).
Guided by the opinions of Egyptologists, it
appears that the authors place Abraham's visit to the Nile Valley between
1733–1732 BCE. According to such a scenario, we tentatively date the expulsion
of the patriarch's family from Egypt to 1732–1731 BCE. Based on the foregoing,
we have compiled Table 1, which dates key events in Abraham's clan up to the
death of Jacob's son Joseph.
Table 1. Approximate Dating of Major Events in Abraham's
Clan
|
Dating (BCE) |
Event |
Primary Source References |
|
1536 |
Hypothetical
death of Joseph at 110 y.o. |
Gen. 50:22, 26 |
|
1590 |
Documented
passing of Jacob after 17 years |
Gen. 47:28, 49:33 |
|
1606–1605 |
Estimated
death of Jacob at age 71–72 |
Explanation in text |
|
1607 |
Jacob migrates to Egypt |
Gen. 45:6, 46:6 |
|
1609 |
Onset of
the famine in the Eastern Mediterranean; Joseph turns 37 |
Gen. 41:53–54 |
|
1610 |
Minoan eruption (hypothesis) |
Explanation in text |
|
1616 |
Joseph
appointed vizier at age 30 |
Gen. 41:44, 46 |
|
1629 |
Joseph
reaches Egypt at age 17 |
Gen. 37:2, 28, 36 |
|
1639 |
Jacob settles in Shechem |
Gen. 33:18–19 |
|
1640 |
Family
leaves Haran; Jacob's hip injury at the Jabbok River; Joseph turns 6 |
Gen. 31:17–18, 41, 32:26, 33 |
|
1646 |
Birth of Joseph;
Jacob makes his final contract with Laban |
Gen. 30:22–23, 25–34 |
|
1653 |
Jacob's wedding |
Gen. 29:20, 22 |
|
1660 |
Jacob (17?
y.o.) leaves for Haran |
Gen. 27:43, 28:10, 29:1–4 |
|
1677 |
Birth of
Esau and Jacob; Jacob's birth injury (Isaac is 28–29 y.o) |
Gen. 25:25–26 |
|
1707–1706 |
Birth of Isaac |
Gen. 21:2 |
|
1708–1707 |
Circumcision
performed on Abraham and Ishmael at 13 y.o. |
Gen. 17:24–25 |
|
1721–1720 |
Birth of Ishmael |
Gen. 16:15 |
|
1722–1721 |
Conception of Ishmael |
Gen. 16:2–4 |
|
1732–1731 |
Departure
of Abraham's family from Egypt |
Gen. 13:1 |
|
1733–1732 |
Anthrax epidemic in Egypt? |
Gen. 12:17 |
|
1733 |
Abraham
and Sarah arrive in Egypt |
Gen. 12:14 |
|
1740 |
Abraham
(25? y.o. and Sarah (15? y.o.) leave Ur |
Gen. 11:31, 17:17 |
|
1755 |
Presumed birth of Sarah |
Explanation in text |
|
1765 |
Birth of Abraham |
Gen. 11:26 |
The adverse impact of the Minoan catastrophe on
flora and fauna was clearly reflected in human health as well. The consequences
of the eruption were capable of worsening the elderly Jacob's condition and
causing premature death. According to the text, it seems to have overtaken the
patriarch a short time after his arrival in the Nile Valley, 1–2 years later,
although the Book of Genesis asserts that Israel lived
"in the land of Egypt seventeen years" (Gen. 47:28).
The chronology of the biblical famine under Joseph,
superimposed upon the annals of Egypt, corresponds to the Second Intermediate
Period, which lasted from roughly 1720 to 1540 BCE (2009StiebingWH). In this
time interval, no more massive cataclysm capable of affecting humans, plants,
and animals than the eruption on the island of Thera is known. The activity of
the Minoan volcano with a VEI of 7 is recognized as one of the greatest in
human memory (volcano.si.edu). Following such a catastrophe, one must expect
phenomena comparable to the consequences of the Tambora volcanic eruption in
1815: abnormal cooling with a year without a summer, crop failure, malnutrition
and human disease, livestock mortality, and mass migration of the population
(2003OppenheimerC). Following the volcanic eruption in southern Patagonia in
1991, the impact of volcanic dust lasted for several months, leading to the
death of many animals (up to 1/3 of the sheep population), as well as birds, some
of which went blind (1995InbarM_SalaniFM).
We believe that the narrative of the final third
of the Book of Genesis is closely linked to the activation of the
Santorini volcano in the late 17th to early 16th century BCE. Both questions
are important for a wide range of sciences, but have not yet found a definitive
answer. The medical evidence contained in the Book of Genesis can shed light on the period of its composition and
the dating of the episodes from Jacob's life. It is not excluded that this work
will help in determining the specific date of the Minoan catastrophe and in
refining the history of the Bronze Age in the Eastern Mediterranean.
At present, it appears to us that our primary
source was written in the Nile Delta in the ancient Egyptian language after
1610 BCE, likely within the following 10 years. During this same period, either
speculatively or in writing, an unknown physician compiled the first medical
record of a patient who had sustained an injury to the ligament of the head of
femur. Specialists of such education were reliably present in Egypt. Proof of
this is the composition of the oldest surgical treatise, the Edwin Smith
Papyrus, around 1600 BCE (2005AllenJP).
The manuscript reflects exceptionally deep
knowledge not only of the primary author, who was a doctor, but also of the
scribe-commentator, who was well-versed in the pathological anatomy of
injuries, their diagnostics, and a materialistic understanding of the symptoms
of injuries to the musculoskeletal system (1930BreastedJH). What we have
indicated points to a level of knowledge relative to a fairly wide circle of
individuals of that era, rather than an isolated phenomenon.
Title & Contents / Chapter 1 / Chapter 2 / Chapter 3 / Chapter 4 / Chapter 5 / Chapter 6 / Chapter 7 / Chapter 8 / Chapter 9 / Chapter 10 / Chapter 11 / Chapter 12 / Chapter 13 / Chapter 14 / Chapter 15 / Chapter 16 / Chapter 17 / Chapter 18 / Chapter 19 / Chapter 20 / Chapter 21 / Chapter 22 / Chapter 23 / Chapter 24 / Chapter 25 / References / Notes
Russian-language version:
Титул и оглавление / Глава 1 / Глава 2 / Глава 3 / Глава 4 / Глава 5 / Глава 6 / Глава 7 / Глава 8 / Глава 9 / Глава 10 / Глава 11 / Глава 12 / Глава 13 / Глава 14 / Глава 15 / Глава 16 / Глава 17 / Глава 18 / Глава 19 / Глава 20 / Глава 21 / Глава 22 / Глава 23 / Глава 24 / Глава 25 / Список литературы
Author of the publication
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, e-mail: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Publication history
October 23, 2026 - online version of the book is published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. Medical Record: The Contribution of a Middle Bronze Age Egyptian Physician to the Book of Genesis. Chapter 2. About the round ligament of the femur. October 23, 2026. https://roundligament.blogspot.com/2026/10/medical-record-chapter-2.html
Note
Keywords
hip joint, hip dislocation, osteoarthritis, ligament of the head of femur, ligamentum teres, ligamentum capitis femoris, Minoan Eruption, Bronze Age, Ancient Medicine, Ancient Egypt, Edwin Smith Papyrus, Biblical Chronology, Genesis, Genesis Protograph, Bereshit
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