Book manuscript: Arkhipov S.V. Medical Record: The Contribution of a Middle Bronze Age Egyptian Physician to the Book of Genesis. Kyrö: Author’s Edition, 2026. – 312 pp. – 2 tables. – Bibliographical references: 856 entries. play.google.com , books.google.com
History of Present Illness
Chapter 19
Condition After Injury
The crossing of Jacob's prototype across the Jabbok River is assumed by us to have taken place in the area of the modern bridge on Highway No. 65 between the settlements of Es-Sawalha and Muaddi (Muaddi, Maaddi). It follows from the text that he suffered an unintentional injury at night while fording a water barrier. His caravan wakes up in the morning on the southern bank of the stream. In our opinion, the camp could have been located near the coordinate point 32°10'18.1" N, 35°37'09.4" E. The altitude of the campsite is approximately 255 m below sea level. From the indicated location, according to our route breakdown, the first stage of the journey after the accident began.
To the north and west of the proposed encampment, the Jabbok River flows in a bend with a gradient ranging from 227 to 314 m below sea level. It empties southwestward into the Jordan River at a point lying 349 m below sea level. To the east rises the Balqa Highland (Southern Gilead, Jebel Jila'ad) with the nearest elevation of 152 m above sea level. From the proposed site of Jacob's camp, only one route in a southerly direction toward the village of Muaddi is possible. In this direction, according to the authors' design, the caravan sets off to meet the army of Esau. The settlement of Muaddi has been identified by us with the biblical "Penuel" (Gen. 32:32).
The path taken by the victim runs almost parallel to the Jabbok River for 3 km, which flows to the west at a distance of 1,000–1,500 m. The road initially goes through the Ghor Damia wa Shika plain, which represents the northern part of the larger Ghor Kabid plain. The latter, in turn, is the southern fragment of the eastern edge of the Jordan River Valley. The only accessible route lies at altitudes of about 250 m below sea level, along the western foot of the Balqa Highland. Here, its slopes, at an average distance of 1 km from the road, rise by 50–100 m. Currently, at a distance of approximately 400 m from the bridge, the buildings of the Muaddi settlement begin, the center of which is located 1 km south of the river at coordinates 32°9'49.1" N, 35°37'2.5" E. After 2.5 km – or nearly 3.7 km from the Jabbok River – there is a Y-shaped junction of Highways No. 65 and No. 30 in the village of Mutallat al-Arda. It is located at an altitude of approximately 240 m below sea level near the coordinate 32°8' N, 35°36' E. The highway adjoining from the east descends in serpentine bends in its middle section from the Balqa Highland, leading from the city of As-Salt. The latter thriving settlement is situated at an elevation of roughly 1,000 m above sea level at a distance of about 18 km.
After the settlement of Mutallat al-Arda, Highway No. 65 continues to follow the Ghor Kabid plain southward along the Jordan River and almost parallel to the foot of the Balqa Highland down to the Dead Sea. From the highway, there are three major branches to the west toward the crossings over the Jordan. The first begins in the area of the village of Mutallat al-Misri at a distance of approximately 8.9 km from the Jabbok River or 5.2 km from the junction in the village of Mutallat al-Arda. From it, in a straight line approximately 27 km away, near the village of Khirbet Khursaa and the settlement of South Shuna, as well as 37 km away, near the village of El-Shatur, roads begin to two other crossings over the Jordan opposite the city of Jericho (Eriha, Ariha). Further south, Highway No. 65 reaches the eastern coast of the Dead Sea and runs along the slopes of the Abarim mountain range (Abarim Mountains), and further – the Al-Sharat Highland with elevations up to 900 m above sea level. In several places, predominantly in the area of the Wadi Mujib National Park, passages have been cut through it in modern times. Without them, traveling along the specified route along the eastern coast of the Dead Sea to its southern tip would be unrealistically difficult.
The above provides grounds to suggest that Esau's army could not have taken this route 3,600 years ago. According to the writers' concept, he set out from the territory where the ruins of ancient Petra and the modern city of Wadi Musa are located. These lands in the time of Jacob were called "Seir", where Esau lived in the "country of Edom" (Gen. 32:4). In favor of this speaks the fact that "Seir" is a mountainous area (Gen. 36:8). Today, this southern part of the Jordanian Highland is called Al-Sharat, to designate a part of which the toponym "Edom Mountains" is used. The city of Wadi Musa and neighboring settlements are located in the middle part of the Al-Sharat Highland. In an encyclopedic article, the borders of this mountainous terrain are indicated as the city and desert of "Kadesh-Barnea", or "Zin", and the desert of "Paran" on the west; Elath and Ezion-Geber on the south; the Arabian-Syrian Desert on the east; and the valley of Wadi al-Quraha and Wadi al-Hasa (Zered) on the north (1908–1913КацельсонъЛ_ГинцбургъДГ). According to our assumption, "Edom" is a fertile plateau in the southern part of the Jordanian Al-Sharat Highland, previously named "Seir". An ancient caravan route from the Gulf of Aqaba to the Dead Sea once ran through this land (2015EckensteinL). Apparently, the protagonist of the Ancient Egyptian story The Shipwrecked Sailor was heading to this area, to the copper mines in Timnah (1978КоростовцевМА).
Where exactly Jacob met his brother Esau is not known for certain. To clarify this issue, we attempted to reconstruct the narrative events after the crossing of the Jabbok (Gen. 32:23–24). As follows from the book of Genesis, at the moment when "the day broke", Jacob is still resting (Gen. 32:27). For example, on November 20, 2021, dawn began at 5:44 a.m. and ended at 6:11 a.m. Approximately during this period of time, Jacob experienced a hypnopompic hallucination in which he communicated with an angel (Gen. 32:27–30). The vision is abruptly interrupted, leaving it unclear where the interlocutor disappears. As it seems to us, awakening occurred with sunrise a quarter of an hour after six in the morning. In the caravan camp, it is already quite noisy. Shepherds before the trek drive the herds to the watering place. The family wakes up, women prepare breakfast and help dress the children. Workers gather belongings and load camels and donkeys. The sounds and morning light seemed to "hurry" the angel. He has no time to explain whose messenger he is, but manages to "bless" him (Gen. 32:30). At this moment, Jacob finally emerges from the realm of dreams into the real world.
In the first seconds after sleep, the newly named "Israel" calls "the name of the place Peniel", stating: "for I have seen an angel face to face, and my life is preserved" (Gen. 32:31). The specified location should be sought on the southern bank of the Jabbok River, rather to the west of Highway No. 65. Having finished the morning meal, folded the tents, gathered the herds, and loaded the baggage onto pack animals, the caravan sets out on the road again. At the hour when the sun shone, Jacob passes "Penuel" (Gen. 32:32). Attention is drawn to the difference in the name of the place of the fight with the angel, "Peniel" (Gen. 32:31). Probably, "Penuel" is an ancient settlement, later mentioned in the books of the Old Testament as "Penuel" and "Peniel" (Judg. 8:8–9, 17; 1 Kings 12:25).
The location of "Penuel" has not yet been established, but it is implied that the settlement was located close to "Succoth" and the Jordan River (Judg. 8:4, 8–9, 17; 1 Kings 12:25). Both existed in the Iron Age under Kings Gideon and Jeroboam. In our opinion, currently, at the place passed by Jacob's procession according to the book of Genesis, the settlement of Muaddi thrives. On certain maps, it is also designated as Wadi Shaban. Relative to the southern bank of the Jabbok River near the bridge on Highway No. 65, the aforementioned village is located on a small hill about 240 m below sea level. From its outer buildings to the place of the proposed stream crossing is approximately 400 m. It seems that the ruins of "Penuel" mentioned in the original source should be sought near coordinates 32°9'49.1" N, 35°37'2.5" E.
During the reign of King Gideon, "Penuel" and its "tower" were destroyed (Judg. 8:9, 17). Later, the settlement – apparently without the "tower" – was restored by order of King Jeroboam (1 Kings 12:25). "Towers" were the main structures in the central part of ancient cities (Judg. 9:51; 1 Sam. 13:6). During excavations in Jericho, at the hill of Tell es-Sultan, a similar city tower with a diameter of about 13 m was found, dating back to 8,300–7.800 BCE, that is, at least 11,000 years old (2008BarkaiR_LiranR; 2011LiranR_BarkaiR). As we understand it, the said structure was erected before the birth of Jacob. Such towers served as an important mechanism for motivating people to participate in a public lifestyle, inspiring them and evoking awe (2011O'SullivanA).
It is logical to attempt to discover the ruins of the "tower of Penuel" in the area of the Jordanian settlement of Muaddi. If a circular foundation can be found, this will serve as a strong argument in favor of our hypothesis.
The caravan passes "Penuel" in daylight. That is, Jacob set out on his journey later than six in the morning. The travelers required about two hours to prepare for the trek. Accordingly, they started around eight o'clock in the morning. On this day, there was no hurry. All the more so because behind them moved the train in the form of the first camp, from which they should not have strayed far.
Livestock prefers to walk at a speed of 2–3.5 km per hour (2014БаскинЛМ_ЧикуроваЕА). Such a pace of movement was preferable for Jacob's procession. This means that past the settlement of Muaddi ("Penuel"), the patriarch passed almost at half past eight in the morning on November 20, 1640 BCE. According to the Book of Jubilees, on the eleventh day of the ninth month of the seventh year of the fourth week of the forty-fourth jubilee, his brother Esau came to Jacob (1913CharlesRH). Presumably, the authors place their conversation south of "Penuel" on the road in the area of the modern settlement of Mutallat al-Arda or near the coordinates 32°8' N, 35°36' E.
This settlement is located on a flat area of land at an altitude of 240 m below sea level. The surrounding plain, called Ghor Damia wa Shika, extends between the Jabbok River, the hollows of Wadi Shiban and Wadi Abu Muhair on the west, and the Balqa Highland on the east. The latter stretches at a distance of approximately 1 km, rising roughly 200 m above the road level. The settlement of Mutallat al-Arda is crossed by the dry bed of Wadi al-Bakkar. The authors did not specify any special landmarks of the meeting place of the twins. Therefore, it is unlikely that the conversation took place in a settlement; rather, it occurred in a deserted area. Creative thought here does not complicate the narrative so as not to distract the reader.
Jacob saw the approaching army of "four hundred men" from afar (Gen. 33:1). The leader halts movement, arranges his family members in a specific order, and leads the procession himself (Gen. 33:1–3). According to our chronology, it was 9–10 o'clock in the morning. Jacob walks forward slowly, trying not to limp noticeably on his "hip" (Gen. 32:32). The patriarch undoubtedly overcomes the pain. A stately gait allows him to pause many times and bow "to the ground" (Gen. 33:3). Esau dismounts from his camel and runs to meet him (Gen. 33:4). Jacob's wives and children approach the embracing brothers in sequence (Gen. 33:6–7). Workers – overseers of the caravan's herds, whom Esau calls a "company" (Gen. 33:8) – draw near. Next follows an allegorical plea for forgiveness: "if I have found favor in your eyes", followed by a request to accept the "present" (Gen. 33:10–11). Esau generously shows mercy to his twin and accepts the gift (Gen. 33:11).
The amount of livestock handed over appears to have been comparable to that which arrived with Jacob's caravan. This could provide comfort while not awakening a lust for gain. The conversation between the twins concludes with a discussion of whether they should travel together or apart (Gen. 33:12–15). Jacob does not wish to go to the lands where his brother rules. In addition, behind them moved the "first camp", the presence of which should not have been disclosed. It was necessary to await the rearguard and unite the property under a single management. At least, so it appears to us from the text of the original source.
On the fresco on the southern wall of the burial chamber of Khnumhotep II in Beni Hasan (12th Dynasty, 20th–18th centuries BCE), a caravan of Asiatic settlers (Aamu) is depicted. In front is shown the leader of the clan, Abisha (Abisha the Hyksos), holding a wild goat and bowing, dressed in a colorful patterned outfit (1893GriffithFL,a). Approximately like this, Jacob's procession and he himself could have looked. His kinsmen were apparently dressed like the Aamu in multicolored tunics, such as the one Joseph received as a gift (Gen. 37:3, 23). It is assumed that the tomb of Khnumhotep II was built in 1897–1878 BCE (2009KamrinJ). Other Egyptologists date the image of the Canaanite caravan to 1895 BCE (2021BietakM_RensburgA). We assume that the authors saw the aforementioned fresco while composing in the 17th century BCE and kept it in mind when creating their own legend.
After reaching a consensus, Esau and his armada immediately turn back home, "to Seir" (Gen. 33:16). If he resided southeast of the Dead Sea, he headed south along the Ghor Kabid plain. Along it, his brother's army had passed a little earlier, having set out from the region where the city of Wadi Musa is located today. Jacob's messengers had traveled by the same route (Gen. 32:7). They were ahead of Esau by approximately two days. According to biblical legend, more than four centuries later, the tribe of Old Testament Moses traveled along part of the route taken by Esau and his companions. In particular, after wandering through the Sinai, the Israelites approach the borders of the land of "Edom" "at Mount Hor" (Num. 33:37). From there, the Israelites pass the settlements of "Zalmonah", "Punon", "Oboth", "Iye-abarim, on the border of Moab", then from "Iyim" they go through "Dibon-gad", "Almon-diblathaim" to the mountains of "Abarim before Nebo" and encamp "in the plains of Moab by the Jordan opposite Jericho" (Num. 33:41–48). As we see it, Old Testament Moses passes "Dibon-gad", modern Madaba, turns west near the city of Na'ur, crosses the Abarim range, and descends into the Jordan River Valley, settling "from Beth-jeshimoth as far as Abel-shittim" (Num. 33:49). It seems that in this case we are talking about the current settlements of Rama and Ar-Rawda in the south, and Juwafat al-Kafrein or South Shuna in the north. Along the described section of the route from the land of "Edom" to the Jordan Valley during his last journey, Jacob's body was carried from Egypt "to Goren-Atad, which is beyond the Jordan" (Gen. 50:10). This textually proves the existence of a beaten track bypassing the Dead Sea from the east across the Al-Sharat Highland.
Currently, from the city of Wadi Musa to the settlement of Mutallat al-Arda, one can travel along a route passing through the modern settlements of Shobak, Dana, Busaira, Es-Sela, Tafilah, Al-Husaaniyya, Al-Mazar, Mu'tah, Al-Adnaniyya, Al-Karak, Rabba, Al-Qasr, Al-Mughayyir, Dhiban, Malech, Madaba, Na'ur, across the Abarim range west to Rama and Ar-Rawda in the southern part of the Jordan Valley, and further along the eastern bank of the Jordan, namely the Ghor Kabid plain, north toward the Jabbok stream (Zarqa River).
The least likely, yet possible final section of the route from Madaba lies through Amman and As-Salt. Its difficulty lies in the continuous movement across the Al-Sharat and Balqa highlands, which would have posed a significant hardship for the passage. In both the first and second cases, Esau's armada covered no less than 250 km. Carrying a rider, Bactrian camels are capable of covering up to 100 km a day, traveling at 10–12 km per hour, while the maximum speed of a dromedary is about 23 km per hour (1964ЛакозаИИ_ЩегинВА). Thus, Esau's companions reached their dwellings on approximately the third day of the journey, November 23, 1640 BCE. However, behind them was the gifted livestock, nearly 600 head; therefore, the leader himself, accompanying it, returned to "Edom" later.
The interaction between the brothers on the road, likely in the area of the modern settlement of Mutallat al-Arda, took 1–2 hours. Reaching a compromise was not accompanied by a joint feast, as was the case with Laban (Gen. 31:46, 54). After Esau's departure around noon, Jacob continues moving at a slow pace, awaiting the arrival of the rearguard – the "first camp". He was marching south toward the Dead Sea rather than turning toward the Balqa Highland to present-day As-Salt. Thus, the procession passed the junction in the modern settlement of Mutallat al-Arda. It would then have been reasonable to send a messenger to the reserve force with the latest news and instructions on which direction to maintain. The caravan, awaiting the arrival of the "deposit", moves leisurely southward along the Ghor Kabid plain at "the pace of the children" (Gen. 33:14). In the area of the village of Mutallat al-Misri, Jacob apparently turns west and covers another 2.5 km toward the present-day settlement of Damia. It is reasonable to assume that in the region with coordinates 32°05'54.0" N, 35°34'01.8" E, the travelers conclude their movement. During the second half of the day after the meeting of the brothers, the caravan covered about 7 km, and in total from the Jabbok River – about 12 km at an average speed of 2–3 km per hour. Toward the evening of November 20, 1640 BCE, Jacob sets up camp. It is given the name "Succoth", and on that same day, tents are pitched for the people and booths are constructed for the livestock (Gen. 33:17).
"Succoth" (Sukot) is translated from Hebrew as "booths" or "tents" (1908–1913КацельсонъЛ_ГинцбургъДГ). In Russian-language transcription, the name sounds like "Sokkhof". This settlement existed on the eastern bank of the Jordan River during the time of Joshua, that is, in the Iron Age. It is mentioned in connection with the valleys of "Beth-Haram" and "Beth-Nimrah" (Josh. 13:27). It is not excluded that "Beth-Nimrah" is the modern Ghor Kabid plain extending to the northern part of the Dead Sea. Our conclusion is drawn on the basis that the name "Nimrah" is mentioned among the southern toponyms of the Transjordan region: "Ataroth, and Dibon, and Jazer, and Nimrah, and Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Sebam, and Nebo, and Beon" (Num. 32:3). Of those listed, "Dibon" and "Nebo" are clearly located south of the Jabbok River. That Succoth existed directly beyond the Jordan is evident from the text of the Book of Judges: "And Gideon came to Jordan, and passed over", and immediately we find: "And he said unto the men of Succoth" (Judg. 8:4–5). Further we read: "And he went up thence to Penuel" (Judg. 8:8). From what has been read, it is possible to conclude: "Succoth" existed closer to the Jordan than "Penuel". The biblical settlements were located close to each other, for after dealing with the inhabitants of "Succoth", Gideon almost immediately destroys the "tower of Penuel" (Judg. 8:16–17). This area was mentioned in connection with King Solomon, who created decorations for the temple "between Succoth and Zarethan": "in the plain of Jordan did the king cast them, in the clay ground" (1 Kings 7:46). "Zarethan" was located near the city of Adam beside the Jordan (Josh. 3:16). Later, "Zarethan" was named "Zeredah" when describing King Solomon's foundry production in the Book of Chronicles (2 Chron. 4:17).
At the same time, other settlements called "Succoth" are known. One was present in Egypt between "Rameses" and "Etham" (Exod. 12:37, 13:20; Num. 33:6–7). Historians identify it with Tjeku, which is in the immediate vicinity of or next to Pithom (1999ГерцЭ). Another is "Succoth, which belongs to Judah" – near "Azekah" in "Ephes-dammim" (1 Sam. 17:1). Apparently, here we are talking about the valley of the same name (Ps. 60:6, 108:7). Near the settlement of "Succoth", the duel of the legendary David with Goliath took place (1 Sam. 17:1, 39–41). Following it, the Philistine army was pursued "by the way to Shaaraim, even unto Gath, and unto Ekron" (1 Sam. 17:52). "Gath" is a city near "Jabneh" and "Ashdod" in the region of Ashdod (2 Chron. 26:6). The settlement of Ashdod is currently called Ashdod. Accordingly, the valley of "Succoth" associated with David's feat must be located not far from the Mediterranean coast, without any connection to Jacob's journey. It should be noted that the legend of the defeated Goliath has direct analogies with the victory over the strongman of the land of Retenu from the "Story of Sinuhe" (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ). The aforementioned casts doubt on the former existence of the valley of "Succoth" near the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea as well.
The conciliatory meeting of the twins ends in a mundane parting: "So Esau returned that day on his way unto Seir. And Jacob journeyed to Succoth" (Gen. 33:16–17). From the text, it is clear that Jacob knew where he was heading and where this place was. He had passed by it when fleeing to Haran, through the city of "Luz", later named "Beth-el" in the "land of Canaan" (Gen. 28:10, 19, 35:6). The Onomasticon determines the location of the settlement of "Luz" at approximately 9 Roman miles (13.3 km) from Shechem, that is, Nablus (1908–1913КацельсонъЛ_ГинцбургъДГ). This means that Jacob did not use the fords in the Jericho area, but crossed the Jordan higher upstream. One of the oldest pedestrian crossings indeed exists at the latitude of Nablus near the modern settlement of Damia. Gideon passed through it while pursuing the kings of "Midian", as did Kings Abner, David, and Abishai (Judg. 8:4; 2 Sam. 2:29, 17:22, 24).
Evidence of the location of the "Succoth" camp close to the Jordan or Jabbok River may be found in its name. The Akkadian concept su-uk-ki-šu is known, meaning the bank of a canal or river, originating from usukku – "side" (2000OppenheimAL). The word is present in a eulogistic inscription (VAB 4 212 ii 7 and 9 (Ner.)) of King Neriglissar: a canal which a previous king had dug, but had not constructed its bank; I dug the canal (again) and built its bank of burnt brick and bitumen (2000OppenheimAL). From the settlement of Damia to the Jordan River is about 2.5 km, and 2 km to the Jabbok River. Standing on the northwestern edge of the plateau, both watercourses are clearly visible. Therefore, the name of the encampment, playing on the word "bank", seems appropriate. Modern views of this area allow one to visualize the landscape that Jacob observed around the "Succoth" camp: the slopes of the highlands to the east and west, precipices and wadis devoid of vegetation, thick growths of trees and shrubs along the banks of the Jabbok and Jordan Rivers, as well as fields. Near the Jordan, the ruins of the ancient city of "Adam" have been excavated (Josh. 3:16, 19:36). The existence of the named settlement in Jacob's time is unlikely, but it cannot be completely ruled out. Its location near the ford across the Jordan created certain advantages for traders and settled pastoralists. Based on what has been said, we propose our own interpretation of the mention of "Succoth, which belongs to Judah", as well as the valley of the same name (1 Sam. 17:40–41; Ps. 60:6, 108:7). In the Iron Age, toponyms near the Mediterranean coast in the area of the modern Gaza Strip could have been named this way. That is, the valley of "Succoth" is a valley by the sea coast.
After bidding farewell to his brother, Jacob needed to stop and await the arrival of the "first camp" in order to resume control over his property (Gen. 32:8–9). Everyone, and the head of the family in particular, needed rest after the emotional strain, the day's march, and the injury received earlier. The journey accomplished was difficult for Jacob's prototype. The victim endured the trauma stoically, without complaining or showing his suffering in any way. The authors give only hints that their hero experienced pain. As we remember, "he halted upon his thigh" (Gen. 32:32).
The key day of the march was coming to an end. Real danger had passed the family. Having covered about 12 km during the day, the caravan in the area of the modern village of Mutallat al-Misri turns west off the road leading to the Dead Sea and departs from the foot of the Balqa Highland. From an altitude of about 250 m below sea level, the procession descends across the Ghor Kabid plain. At a distance of about 2.5 km from the road lies a small plateau at an elevation of 300 m below sea level with the settlement of Damia. We have conventionally named it the "Succoth" plateau. It is bounded by hills with numerous ravines, small and large wadis, and barren slopes 20–40 m high. To the north flows the Jabbok River, to the south Wadi er-Russeif and Wadi Abu esh-Shananir, and to the west extends a lowland along the eastern bank of the Jordan River, flowing in this section from an altitude of 349 to 363 m below sea level.
The discussed events of the trek of Jacob's family occurred in autumn, during the cool rainy season. Positioning the camp near the Jordan or Jabbok River could lead to flooding from the rising water level, as well as rainwater flowing down from the hills bounding the Ghor Kabid plain from the east. The "Succoth" plateau proved to be an acceptable area well drained by ravines. There was enough space around for livestock feeding and watering places. Here Jacob remains to spend the winter. More precisely, so it seemed prudent to the creators of the Book of Genesis, who surely had visited the indicated places.
[iv]
Analysis of the text of the Book of Genesis allowed us to suggest that the prototype of Jacob received an injury to the hip joint while fording the Jabbok River on foot (Gen. 32:23–24). It seems to us that this was an accident that occurred at around two o'clock in the morning on November 20, 1640 BCE. Despite the incident, the crossing of the water barrier does not stop. This means that the damage only slightly limits Jacob's activity through pain or impaired mobility. Later it will turn out that his "sinew that shrank" of the "hollow of the thigh / hip" suffered (Gen. 32:33). This anatomical structure is currently called the ligament of the head of femur. The sparse description of the event in our original source, without emphasizing the injury received, may correspond to the clinical picture of damage to this small element of the hip joint.
Indirect evidence of an injury to the ligament of the head of femur is provided by the circumstances appearing in the text after the crossing. Jacob personally participates in its completion, as it is stated: "and sent them over the stream, and sent over what he had" (Gen. 32:24). The action is described as completed. The patriarch also helps the family settle for rest, sets up a tent, and organizes the rhythm of life at the temporary camp at the place "Peniel" (Gen. 32:31). Probably, the victim participates in unloading the transport animals and determines the grazing and watering places for the livestock before the upcoming trek. Having accomplished this and many other tasks in his restless household, Jacob is finally left alone (Gen. 32:25). Consequently, he did not fall, was not found accidentally and lifted by his companions, nor was he carried from the site of injury to the encampment. Until the moment of rest, namely for the remainder of the night, Jacob moved independently. Everything occurred in the dark. Whether his gait was impaired, no one could see. The victim himself does not report it. The authors do not direct our attention to this, thereby emphasizing the incident in the darkness of the night. Having dozed off, in the morning Jacob sees a mystical dream, or rather, a hypnopompic hallucination. It is interrupted by the rising sun and sounds from the awakening caravan camp. Therefore, the vision turns out to be fixed in memory, and later – in written form.
The sun on the indicated day of the year appears above the horizon at approximately a quarter past six. For example, on November 20, 2021, the sun rose at 6:11 a.m. After sunrise, it becomes sufficiently light, allowing for a closer inspection of the surroundings. To continue the trek, Jacob and his companions gather their belongings and reload the baggage onto camels and donkeys. He gathers the herds, seats the wives and children on the animals, and forms the order of the caravan's procession. Apparently, the vanguard set out south across the Ghor Damia wa Shika plain around eight o'clock. Jacob's prototype did not mount a camel, but walked on foot (Gen. 32:32). The sun was shining, and everyone saw that his gait had changed (Gen. 32:32). Until that moment, no lameness had been observed in him; otherwise, no one – including the writers – would have paid attention to its appearance. This anomaly is described for the first time in relation to Jacob and, according to the text, is directly linked to the hip joint injury (Gen. 32:26). We know that he possessed a shepherd's staff (Gen. 32:11). A shepherd's device is capable of facilitating movement after an accident.
Livestock prefers to move at a speed of 2–3.5 km per hour (2014БаскинЛМ_ЧикуроваЕА). Pragmatically, such a pace is best chosen for the caravan. Among the animals and people, Jacob moves unhurriedly: tired after working at the crossing, lacking sleep, anxious before the conversation with his brother, and, moreover, injured. He must not reveal his fear to those around him; everyone needs encouragement, for they understand that the meeting could end tragically. The procession does not hurry, as the critical hour of the trek approaches with a measured tread. The nearest of the currently existing settlements, Muaddi, begins 400 m from the Jabbok River. This settlement is associated by us with "Penuel", mentioned in the Book of Genesis (Gen. 32:32). Presumably, the procession passed the village around half past eight in the morning on November 20, 1640 BCE.
The caravan continues for some time along the road near the Balqa Highland in a southerly direction. The string of people and livestock covers no less than 2 km and reaches the area where the modern settlement of Mutallat al-Arda thrives. Finally, ahead, Jacob sees: "Esau came, and with him four hundred men" (Gen. 33:1). After this, the order of the family's procession is reorganized (Gen. 33:1–2). Jacob halts those walking, goes around his wives, and does not merely explain who follows whom, but "arranged" them personally (Gen. 33:1). All this he accomplishes on foot, shuttling among his kinsmen. Then, again without climbing onto a camel, Jacob leads the procession, as we read in the text: "he passed over before them" (Gen. 33:3). Approaching his brother, he bows seven times "to the ground" (Gen. 33:3). Consequently, while walking slowly, Jacob pauses, bows low, straightens up, takes a few steps, and bows forward again. The previously received injury allowed him to walk about 3.5 km from the Jabbok River, shuttle among his family, and also perform numerous forward bends of the body.
Noticing his brother, Esau dismounts from his camel and hurries to meet him (Gen. 33:4). The brothers embrace, likely not far from the present-day settlement of Mutallat al-Arda. According to the Book of Genesis, the twins' conversation took place between "Penuel" and "Succoth" (Gen. 32:23, 32, 33:17). We conventionally determine the location of the brothers' conversation near the coordinates 32°8' N, 35°36' E, near the Y-shaped junction of Highways No. 65 and No. 30 of the Kingdom of Jordan. It seems that the authors of the work implied the indicated area.
The primary source does not directly inform us that the relatives sat down immediately during the conversation. Initially, Esau's acquaintance with Jacob's family, their reconciliation, and the presentation of the gift occur "on their feet" (Gen. 33:5–11). Further topics could have been discussed while seated. In particular, where to go and in what order to continue moving (Gen. 33:12–15). Esau's proposal to "take our journey, and let us go" testifies in favor of the fact that during this part of the discussion, Jacob sat down to rest. The injury received does not prevent transitioning to a seated position and returning to a vertical posture. From the meaning of the victim's answer, it is clear that he does not wish to hurry while following to "Seir" (Gen. 33:14). Referring to the nursing livestock, the patriarch wants to proceed "slowly, according to the pace of the cattle ... and the pace of the children" (Gen. 33:13–14).
It seems to us that the writers disguised Jacob's desire not to disturb his injured leg. Another explanation: it was important not to miss the "first camp", which lagged behind the vanguard by approximately 12–24 hours. Esau generously does not insist, having noticed how his brother limped as he walked toward him (Gen. 32:32). That is why he ran upon seeing him (Gen. 33:4). On the very same day, the reconciled parties part ways. Esau departs first (Gen. 33:16). The absence of a joint feast and the relatively brief conversation on the road suggest that the parting took place around noon. Esau's army rushes in a southerly direction through the Ghor Kabid plain along the eastern bank of the Jordan and the foot of the Balqa Highland. In the same direction Jacob "journeyed" with his kinsmen (Gen. 33:17). Up to that point, after leaving the camp by the Jabbok River, the patriarch moved on foot, using the additional support he possessed (Gen. 32:11).
However small the injury received was, the pain undoubtedly intensified with walking and prolonged standing. For the remainder of the day, it became possible for Jacob to travel riding a camel. By evening, the victim stops at the "Succoth plateau" in the area of the modern town of Damia, with coordinates 32°05'54.0" N, 35°34'01.8" E. The labors of this most crucial twenty-four hours of the trek do not end here. Jacob builds "him an house" and makes "booths" for his cattle (Gen. 33:17). From what has been read, it follows that tents are pitched for living and numerous shelters for the animals are constructed. Taking into account the reserve "camp", about 600 head of livestock gathered around the "Succoth" camp. Subsequently, another 1,000 animals arrived. The writers hint at this in order to demonstrate the wealth of Joseph's father to the Egyptian reader. Seneb, who held a high position at the court in Ancient Egypt around 2520 BCE, owned thousands of head of livestock (2016TassinariJ_SistiA). According to our calculations, upon leaving Haran, Jacob had more than two thousand animals.
An autumn day in Jordan is fleeting. Twilight begins early. For example, on November 20, 2021, in the area of the town of Deir Alla, the sun set below the horizon at 4:35 p.m. In the dark hours of the day, it is difficult to work, let alone set up camp in unfamiliar terrain and build dwellings. From the meeting point with Esau in the area of the modern settlement of Mutallat al-Arda to the "Succoth plateau" is approximately 8 km. When moving at a speed of 2–3 km per hour, this distance is easily covered in 4 hours. If the brothers parted around 12 o'clock, Jacob arrived at the new campsite before dark and commenced urgent work prior to evening twilight.
Practically the entire first day after the injury, Jacob spends on his feet. This was a time of labor and significant emotional strain. Everything planned was accomplished: preserving the family and most of the property. In the case of a severe injury, such as a hip dislocation, Jacob would not have been able to accomplish even a fraction of what has been listed. Thus, the accident did not lead to gross functional impairments of the lower extremities and vital activity. However, what was experienced and traversed required a subsequent lengthy period of rest: a "healing" of body and soul.
The description of the patient's first day with an injury sustained from twisting the leg is quite plausible. We have formed the impression that the writers did not wish to create an explicit myth. Moreover, they "embedded" realistic details into the legend, implying symptoms of a relatively mild hip joint injury and its immediate consequences. Below we will show that the creators of the work managed to demonstrate methods of differential diagnosis for a very specific injury.
Having completed the march, Jacob establishes the "Succoth" encampment in the vicinity of the Jordan and Jabbok Rivers. Nearby were watering places for the livestock. Grazing was carried out in the environs of the camp: to the east and south – at the foot of the Balqa Highland on the Ghor Kabid plain, and to the west – along the banks of the Jordan and Jabbok Rivers on the Ghor Damia wa Shika plain. Winter was approaching, it grew cold, and rain fell frequently. Around the established encampment were numerous ravines and wadis that contributed to draining the territory under human dwellings and animal shelters. A reader of our primary source familiar with the specified area would agree. This is precisely what the authors of the Book of Genesis were counting on.
How long Jacob rests in "Succoth" is unclear from the text. In the Book of Jubilees it is stated: "in the first year in the fifth week" of the forty-fourth jubilee he crossed the Jordan (1913CharlesRH). Consequently, this occurs the year following the fording of the Jabbok stream. According to our chronology, Jacob founds the "Succoth" camp on the evening of November 20, 1640 BCE, and leaves it several months later in 1639 BCE. It was rational to spend the winter on the eastern bank of the Jordan and cross to the western bank in the spring. During wintering, Jacob could have recounted to his kinsmen his "meeting with the angel". If this assumption is correct, then an oral tradition arose in the area of the settlement of Damia, explaining the lameness caused by damage inflicted by the demon of the Jabbok River.
Finally, "Jacob came safely to the city of Shechem, which is in the land of Canaan" (Gen. 33:18). Currently, the settlement is named Nablus, appearing in Russian-language sources as Sikhem. According to our measurements using the mapping service of Google, from the settlement of Damia to the Jordan is slightly more than 3 km. The road first lies among almost impassable hills and ravines. Then it descends roughly 50 m, reaching a wide plain section on the eastern bank of the Jordan. Here lies an ancient ford. This crossing was used by the biblical Gideon in pursuit of the kings of "Midian", as well as Abner, David, and Abishai (Judg. 8:4; 2 Sam. 2:29, 17:22, 24). It is not excluded that the caravan of "Ishmaelites" from "Gilead" – that is, from the Transjordanian Highland – traveled along this crossing "to Egypt" (Gen. 37:25). As will be recalled, the merchants bought Joseph "in Dothan", passing by "Shechem" (Gen. 37:14, 17, 28). This pedestrian crossing was apparently used by Jacob when traveling to Haran through the city of "Luz", later named "Beth-el", which is in the "land of Canaan" (Gen. 28:10, 19, 35:6). There is an opinion that the settlement of "Luz" existed at approximately 9 Roman miles (ca. 13.3 km) from Shechem on Mount Gerizim (1908–1913КацельсонъЛ_ГинцбургъДГ).
From the currently existing Damia Bridge to Nablus in a straight line is 26 km. At the same time, the mountains of Samaria block the path. Taking into account the features of the terrain, traveling along modern highways, the caravan would need to cover about 45 km. During the period of the specified journey, it is difficult to judge Jacob's condition. The exception is only a single phrase: "Jacob came safely" (Gen. 33:18). Reading it, it is appropriate to conclude that the injury did not create difficulty in moving. At the same time, Jacob had the opportunity to travel riding a camel, one of those that brought out the wives and children from Haran (Gen. 31:17). Among his livestock, there were also donkeys suitable for riding (Gen. 32:16). A shepherd's staff could facilitate a march on foot (Gen. 32:11). In "Shechem", Jacob sets up a new dwelling: he "pitched his tent" and with his own hands "erected there an altar", naming it "El-Elohe-Israel" (Gen. 33:19–20). Previously, field sanctuaries were constructed using dry stone masonry made of whole, unhewn stones (Exod. 20:25; Deut. 27:5–6). That is, he was capable of the labor of a mason and long marches, at least for one year following the injury.
[vi]
The conflict with the inhabitants of "Shechem" forces Jacob to relocate almost 13 km to "Beth-el", previously named "Luz" (Gen. 28:19, 35:3, 6). To the new place of residence, the patriarch also "came" and again "built there an altar" (Gen. 35:6–7). After the funeral of Deborah, the family departs from "Beth-el" along the road "to Ephrath" (Gen. 35:8, 16, 19). At the next stop, Rachel dies (Gen. 35:19–20). Then the procession stops "beyond the tower of Eder" (Gen. 35:21). From this location, the path lay unto Mamre, unto Kiryath-arba, which is Hebron (Gen. 35:27).
From Nablus to the modern city of Hebron (Al-Khalil), the shortest distance across the Judean Mountains is about 80 km. When bypassing the mountains from the west from one point to the other, it is necessary to cover at least 105 km. To "Hebron", to "his father", Jacob "came" (Gen. 35:27). From the Old Testament words, an absence of significant limitations in independent movement is discerned. Otherwise, in the text there could have been an indication that the victim "arrived riding" or was "delivered" to his father's house (Gen. 35:29). After the death of his parent, "Jacob dwelt in the land wherein his father was a stranger, in the land of Canaan" (Gen. 37:1). Following this event comes the story of the sale of seventeen-year-old Joseph into Egyptian slavery (Gen. 37:2, 28). Having analyzed the authors' design, we tend to believe that the youth reaches Egypt in 1629 BCE. From the moment of crossing the Jabbok River, 11 years had passed.
The above allows us to suggest that Joseph and his peer Dinah arrive with their parents in Shechem at the age of 7 in 1639 BCE. Next, the Book of Genesis recounts how Jacob's daughter was attacked by the son of "Hamor the Hivite, prince of the country" (Gen. 34:2). We date the crime to 1634–1633 BCE, when Dinah was 12–13 years old. The family leaves the walls of Shechem and, approximately a year later, settles in Hebron, that is, in 1633–1632 BCE. Another 3–4 years later, Joseph flees to Egypt. The brothers did not sell him to Midianite traders (Gen. 37:28, 36). Nor is there any reason to believe that Simeon and Levi, defenders of Dinah's honor, attacked the city of Shechem "and slew all the males" (Gen. 34:25).
Why the authors included the legend of the massacre in Shechem into the epic is not entirely clear to us. A pragmatic explanation seems to be a slander against the tribe of the "Hivites", but why – it is now difficult to say. The coercion of a woman into sexual relations described in the Book of Genesis is classified as a grave offense entailing the death penalty for the perpetrator (Gen. 34:2, 7). This is consonant with the Hittite Laws (17th–12th centuries BCE). In particular, they state: "If a man seizes a woman in the mountains (and rapes her), it is the man's crime, and he shall be put to death". A similar punishment was provided for an attack on a bride (1997HoffnerJrHA). According to the Code of Hammurabi, written around 1760 BCE: "If a man forces the wife of another man who has not known a man and lives in her father's house to intimate relations... then that man shall be put to death, and that woman shall go free" (1920HandcockPSP). Hamor and Shechem, hearing the requirement to undergo circumcision, come "unto the gate of their city" and collectively find a way out of the current situation (Gen. 34:20). The city gates appear as the central place for holding public assemblies and judicial proceedings to make an official decision in the community. The episode is consonant with Hittite practice. In the Hittite Kingdom, in every city there was a court located at the city gate, headed by local elders (1997HoffnerJrHA).
Jacob's sons boldly attack the city of Shechem, for some reason slay all adult males, plunder households, and take women and children into slavery (Gen. 34:25–29). The fragment demonstrates a model of archaic warfare where victory over an enemy is inextricably linked with the complete destruction of the male population, seizure of livestock and property, and enslavement of the survivors. In the Story of Sinuhe, the main character recalls his exploits: "Every country against which I went, I triumphed over it, and the country was deprived of its pastures and wells; I drove off its cattle, I led away its inhabitants, I seized their provisions; I killed the people who were there by my mighty arm, by my bow, by my marches, by my skillful plans" (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ). Further below we read about the victory over the champion of the land of Retenu: "Then I took his property, I drove off his cattle. What he had intended to do to me, I did to him. I seized what was in his tent, I laid waste to his camp" (1979ЛившицИГ_РубинштейнРИ).
The authors' description of contemporary customs and legal norms helps clarify the context and approximately date the events. However, a non-obvious goal appears to be the medical co-author's demonstration of his knowledge. In the original source, Jacob's sons act as cunning, highly experienced surgeons, knowing at what moment it is best to attack the men of the settlement, namely "on the third day, when they were sore" (Gen. 34:25). Only a qualified surgical physician knows that an infectious postoperative complication most commonly develops after 3–5 days. During the specified period, inflammation is already marked, suppuration appears, pain intensifies, body temperature rises, and general weakness is noted. It is not excluded that the author implied that the operated patients engaged in self-medication, lost their vigilance, or perhaps consumed wine for analgesic purposes. Such a situation is admissible to imagine, given the artistic nature of the work and the participation of a doctor in its creation.
Simeon and Levi were not surgeons. The operating doctor was one of the creators of the Book of Genesis. The operation of excising the foreskin is mentioned by him numerous times (Gen. 17:10–14, 23–27, 21:4, 34:14–15, 17, 22–24). The presence of oxen in the text indicates that the writer had an understanding of castration (Gen. 24:35, 32:6, 16, 49:6). In the verses we find a passage regarding the tenotomy of an animal (Gen. 49:6). Physicians specializing in surgery are instructed to perform the embalming of Jacob's body (Gen. 50:2).
Of particular interest is a fragment telling of a rib resection under anesthesia: "And the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof" (Gen. 2:21). In the last phrase, the application of a surgical suture or plaster to the wound is discussed. The above unambiguously describes an operation on the human chest wall. In the Hebrew version of the primary source, the removed anatomical element of the rib cage is named with the word "צֵלָע" in the plural (1978БроерМ_ЙосифонД). The term is translated as "side", "rib", "beam", or "plank" (1903JastrowM). Using the method of elimination, we isolate the correct option – "rib". The concept of "side" in our case does not imply removal and restructuring, while "beam" and "plank" are not structural elements of the human body.
Removing an entire rib from a living individual is possible only theoretically due to the extreme trauma and painfulness of the intervention. In addition, depressurization of the pleural cavity, life-threatening displacement of mediastinal organs, and the exclusion of one lung from the act of breathing followed by hypoxemia are inevitable. In reality, a portion of a rib is excised, but only under general anesthesia using a mechanical ventilator. A barber-surgeon is incapable of conceiving such a thing. Only a doctor aware of methods of anesthesia and practiced in incising patients' bodies is capable of imagining a major surgical operation.
The writers were aware of the soporific effect of alcohol. For example, Noah drank wine and fell asleep (Gen. 9:21, 24). Lot was allegedly made drunk with wine, and he did not remember what had happened to him (Gen. 19:32–35). With standard consumption of ethyl alcohol, a sedative effect, analgesia, muscle relaxation, and depression of consciousness up to stupor and coma are achievable. Theoretically, such properties of ethanol can provide general anesthesia and relative comfort for a patient during a surgical manipulation on his chest.
The soporific property of ethyl alcohol was reliably known to the Egyptians from ancient times. In a spell from the tomb of Teti (6th Dynasty, ca. 2323–2291 BCE), a request is recorded: "O you who are in charge of bread-making, belonging to the inundation, entrust Teti to Fetekta [a minor deity], the cupbearer of the Sun, so that he himself may entrust Teti to the Sun, and the Sun may entrust Teti to those in charge of sustenance. When he takes a bite, he will give (a little) to Teti; when he takes a sip [of wine], he will give (a little) to Teti, and Teti will sleep peacefully every day" (2007AllenJP). The myth The Destruction of Mankind tells how the goddess Sekhmet saw the spilled beer: "and then she drank, and her heart was pleased. And she departed and did not recognize human beings" (1940МатьеМВ). In another retelling of this legend, we read: "The intoxicating moisture took its effect: Hathor-Sekhmet became so drunk that she could not distinguish people" (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ). There is an authoritative opinion that this myth is probably a tale of the Middle Kingdom (2006LichtheimM). At the conclusion of the medico-magical Ebers Papyrus, a calendar of Pharaoh Djeserkare, who ruled in 1525–1504 BCE, is inscribed, where among others the month of Drunkenness is named (1889EbersG).
Sumerians began cultivating the opium poppy approximately 3,000 years before the common era and produced opium (1995KapoorLD). Opium is one of the strongest narcotic analgesics. There is evidence pointing to the origin of the opium poppy in the Western Mediterranean in the 6th millennium BCE (2019SamoriniG). From the point of view of archaeobotanists, the opium poppy species (Papaver somniferum) arose through spontaneous crossings of wild forms (Papaver gracile & Papaver glaucum) in the regions of contact between Anatolia and the Syrian Desert (1990KadereitJW). Natives of Asia reliably resided on the banks of the Nile in 2855–2570 BCE (2025MorezJacobsA_Girdland-FlinkL). Therefore, we are not surprised by the discovery of poppy seeds in a tomb in Meidum built during the 4th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom (2020RossiAM). This is additional evidence of the existence of ties between Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. Tribes of Asiatics came to the Nile Valley in 1897–1878 BCE, which is depicted on the wall of the tomb of Khnumhotep (2009KamrinJ). Nothing prevented them from delivering opium to Egypt.
For an infected wound of the chest wall, the doctor who wrote the Edwin Smith Papyrus prescribes the patient a powder containing seeds of the špn plant, that is, poppy (1930BreastedJH). There is no reason to doubt the ancient physician's knowledge of the soporific properties of the juice of this flowering plant. In the Ebers Papyrus, the špn poppy is contained in a combined remedy "to eliminate the plaintive cries" of a child (1889EbersG). Besides the specified ingredient, the compiler of the Ebers Papyrus includes "strong" beer in numerous recipes, and wine for chest pain (1889EbersG).
In our work, the dispute between the sisters regarding mandrake is noteworthy (Gen. 30:14–16). Oral plant analgesics and narcotic agents in the Tigris and Euphrates Mesopotamia were used from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE: henbane, cannabis, and mandrake. The latter was often prescribed separately, but could also be combined with other preparations (1991AdamsonPB). In Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets, patients were prescribed the tops (juice) and root of mandrake (1926ThompsonRC). In Dynastic Egypt, there existed a well-organized, hierarchical, and competent medical system; surgical supplies were available for successfully conducting operations, as well as "painkillers and sedatives, including perhaps a preparation made from mandrake fruit" (1996SullivanR).
Mandrake was written about by Hippocrates of Cos, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Aretaeus, and Athenaeus (1905RandolphCB). Hannibal (3rd–2nd centuries BCE) and Julius Caesar (1st century BCE) mixed mandrake with wine to put enemy soldiers to sleep; Aulus Celsus (1st century CE) recommended it as an analgesic; Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) advised prescribing it before operations; and during the reign of Nero, it was prescribed as a soporific in dental procedures. The herb is rich in scopolamine, which possesses a sedative and amnestic effect that, in combination with anesthetics such as opium, is capable of providing true anesthesia (2012ChidiacEJ_FuleihanSF). Pedanius Dioscorides in the first century of the common era indicated that mandrake roots should be boiled in wine: "A cup of this juice is used for those who cannot sleep or have suffered severe injuries and who need to be anesthetized before an incision or cauterization" (2000DioscoridesP_WoodRP).
In the translation of an impression of an Assyrian clay tablet, we discovered a combination of mandrake, opium, and certain other ingredients for pain and to eliminate an "obsessive idea" (1926ThompsonRC). The ancient Egyptians knew about hellebore, henbane, mandrake, and poppy (opium). Their processing yields powerful analgesic combinations (2009KellyK). It is assumed that the Egyptians became acquainted with mandrake imported from the territory of Palestine or Syria during the Hyksos period (2019SamoriniG). In Egypt, mandrake began to be cultivated starting from the New Kingdom, that is, in 1550–1069 BCE (2010AboelsoudNH). Mandrake as a remedy for alleviating a painful condition is indicated in the Ebers Papyrus (2003KongJM_ChiaTF). The fruits of mandrake are compared to cheeks in a spell of the Erman Papyrus, dating from the Hyksos period to the beginning of the New Kingdom (1901ErmanA). Depictions of this plant are present in tombs in Luxor and Thebes built in 1600–1400 BCE (2012ChidiacEJ_FuleihanSF). On an 18th Dynasty fresco, mandrake is presumably being presented to Tutankhamun (ca. 1334–1325 BCE), who is leaning on a crutch (2013ColtonC). In the tomb of Tutankhamun, a luxurious gold bracelet reminiscent of a mandrake fruit surrounded by poppies was discovered (1992ReevesC).
The concept of "mandrake" in the Book of Genesis serves as a marker of the time of its composition, as do the "chariots" that appeared in Egypt at the end of the Second Intermediate Period. Knowledge of the pharmacological properties of this plant made it possible in principle to perform relatively major surgical interventions, or at least to achieve analgesia in patients. Therefore, the project of removing a rib from Adam is not perceived as completely fantastical. At the same time, in practice, in addition to anesthesia, mechanical ventilation, aseptic conditions, a set of instruments, dressings, suture material, agents for induction and emergence from anesthesia, and at least one assistant are required. Apparently, the writer was unaware of this or considered it unnecessary to discuss details within the scope of an epica.
An understanding of human ribs developed in Ancient Mesopotamia. In the Sumerian myth Enki and Ninhursag, the goddess heals, among other things, the sick rib of the god Enki. Ninhursag says: "My brother, what hurts you?" "My rib hurts", Enki replies. Next, the goddess comforts the patient: "For you I have given birth to the goddess Ninti" (that is, "the lady of the rib" or "the lady who gives life") (1965КрамерС).
Human ribs have been known to the Egyptians at least since the Old Kingdom. In an utterance from the tomb of Unas (5th Dynasty, ca. 2353–2323 BCE), there are the words: "Your two drops into the earth! Your two ribs into the pit!" (2007AllenJP). This is perhaps one of the earliest mentions of human ribs in Egypt. In a spell from the corpus of the Coffin Texts (ca. 2134–2040 BCE), an analogy to Old Testament verses is present: "I am the ears of grain that are born of Osiris, that grow out of the ribs of Osiris, that allow people to live, that make gods gods" (1983ЛипинскаяЯ_МарцинякМ); "is this bush of life which went forth from Osiris to grow on the ribs of Osiris and to nourish the plebs, which makes the gods divine and spiritualizes the spirits" (1973FaulknerRO).
The harvesting of bone tissue according to the Book of Genesis is carried out by means of a surgical incision with subsequent joining of the skin edges. In Ancient Egyptian medical texts, wound closure and ribs are first discussed in the Edwin Smith Papyrus. The treatise discusses three clinical situations associated with ribs: a sprain (Case 42), a dislocation, rather costochondritis / Tietze syndrome (Case 43), as well as a fracture with a description of rib palpation within the wound (Case 44). The author of this surgical treatise recommends joining wound edges with ligatures, narrow fabric strips (adhesive plasters), and bandages (Cases 2, 3, 10, 14, 23, 28, 47). In discussing the treatment of a gaping facial wound (Case 10), the medical writer uses the biblical concept of "closing" (1930BreastedJH).
We have noticed that Egyptian writers who composed after the author of the Edwin Smith Papyrus do not palpate ribs, but merely state their presence, while treating skin injuries without applying sutures. One gets the impression that knowledge regarding the necessity of digital examination of a chest wound and primary surgical treatment of skin defects with suturing became lost. This knowledge of treatment and diagnostics was "rediscovered" for a second time much later. Currently, palpation of a chest wound or its probing is mandatory, and ideally – a full surgical revision to rule out penetrating trauma. In conservative management of accidental skin defects, there is a justified rationalism. If an accidental wound is treated without adhering to the principles of asepsis and antisepsis, the probability of suppuration increases significantly. To this day, wounds are treated with an "open method" when it is impossible to remove all foreign bodies, tissue debris, and contaminated tissues.
The presence of a surgeon in the Egyptian healthcare system is recorded in the Turin Papyrus CGT 54051, inscribed during the 20th Dynasty, which ruled in 1196–1070 BCE (2002BunsonMR). In one of the spells, the god Horus is presented as a physician, while in another he uses a flint knife. Surgical sutures known to us were found on the wound through which internal organs were extracted from a 21st Dynasty mummy, that is, manufactured in 1070–945 BCE (2002NunnJF). In another embalmed body of the same period, posthumous suturing of a wound and the sewing of two pieces of animal hide at the site of bedsores were discovered (1998SullivanR).
Our acquaintance with available ancient texts showed that the earliest surgical intervention for thoracic pathology was the palpation of a rib in a wound, described in the Edwin Smith Papyrus. For a long time, doctors' manipulations on the chest wall were not reflected in written sources. A report on the oldest thoracic surgical procedure was identified by us in a late-period cuneiform tablet in Akkadian. This tablet, discovered among the ruins of the Hittite capital of Hattusa, recounts the drainage of the pleural cavity for empyema (2014ScurlockJ). It is assumed that the text on the clay tablet with diagnosis and prognosis came "from the pen" of an 11th-century BCE Babylonian scholar (2012RutzMT). This type of operation on the chest wall, as in the Book of Genesis, implied general or local anesthesia.
In the Ancient World, the greatest flourish of surgery was noted only in Egypt. In tombs of various eras, numerous invasive and non-invasive procedures are depicted: reduction of broken bones, circumcisions, operations on the neck and limbs (1963WellsC). Traces of treating superficial metastases with a cutting instrument are present on the skull of an Egyptian who lived in 2687–2345 BCE (2024TondiniT_CamarósE). By 2400 BCE, operations were being performed regularly on the banks of the Nile (2012GabrielRA). Surgery reached a developed state during the Old Kingdom, that is, approximately in 2613–2181 BCE, whereas writings from the New Kingdom period, dating to 1567–1085 BCE, speak of its degradation (1989RowlingJT).
The above allows us to narrow the time interval into which the writer placed the anesthetic mandrake and the project of rib resection into the text. This occurred prior to the New Kingdom, during the Second Intermediate Period or the Middle Kingdom, when the Edwin Smith Papyrus had already been written. The author of this manuscript remains unknown. However, with a high degree of probability, he happened to write during the 16th–17th Dynasties, more precisely around 1600 BCE (2005AllenJP). The legendary translator of the Edwin Smith Papyrus, James Breasted, wrote: "it seems definitely to belong to the Hyksos era", but was copied in Thebes (1930BreastedJH). The treatise is recognized as a well-structured surgical training manual distinguished by sound judgment and a series of precisely selected medical scenarios based on clinical knowledge (2010VanMiddendorpJJ_BurridgeAL). In this work, for the first time, the personality of a doctor is revealed who seeks the secrets of the human body, recognizing processes and conditions arising from the effect of physical factors (2005FisherRFG_ShawPLF). It is suspected that the author was a court or military physician of Ancient Egypt (1931MeyerhofM).
A specialist of this level could well have set forth the concept of a major operation on the chest wall in the Book of Genesis. The flight of his thought did not stop there. After the harvesting of the rib, its remodeling is spoken of (Gen. 2:22). The medical writer assumes the transformation of the tissues of a bone organ into a complete human organism, akin to the reorganization of the fluids of a bird's egg into a chick. Incubation of bird eggs in the Nile Valley was practiced from the third millennium BCE (2023AdameMM_KudaNT). If a remodeled rib is used instead of an egg, then theoretically a clone can be grown. Among vertebrates, true parthenogenesis – that is, the replication of living organisms without a partner – has been discovered in the bonnethead shark, crocodile, Brahminy blindsnake, and lizards (2017RyskovAP_MurphyRW; 2023BoothW_SchuettGW). Among other things, vegetative reproduction has already been tested by nature; it remained only to adapt it for the species Homo sapiens.
Obtaining an individual identical to the parent, but of a different sex, is impossible by means of cloning alone; interference with the genome is necessary. Of course, our author did not contemplate genetic and cellular modification of somatic cells, but discerned a theoretical possibility of obtaining human offspring through vegetative reproduction and sex modification. The biblical fantasy of Eve's creation appears scientific to us. Today, from a male rib, it is possible to isolate mesenchymal stem cells, transform them into induced pluripotent stem cells, adjust the sex, achieve differentiation into oocytes, replace their nuclei with nuclei of an edited XX somatic cell, and place the resulting embryo into an artificial womb or the uterus of a surrogate mother for gestation. The author of the idea was a man. He could not have his own offspring due to physiological limitations and, consequently, reflected on a semblance of cloning. Only the female organism is capable of leaving behind a part of itself on earth and thereby continuing to live. Man is merely a trigger. Over time, genetic engineering and biotechnology will be able to replace this sex without significant detriment to the species.
Evolutionarily, the X-chromosome is richer in genes, encoding 800 proteins, whereas the Y-chromosome has regressed to information on 78 proteins (2013BachtrogD). The female organism is maximally saturated with biological information in contrast to the male, which determines a greater adaptive potential. Exclusive 722 genes allow women to live longer. According to WorldData.info project data responsibly collected prior to early 2023, there is no region in the world where female life expectancy is lower than that of males. The Y-chromosome shortens the lifespan of the "stronger sex" in certain populations by 10–15 years (2018MaraisGA_LemaitreJF). What is colloquially termed the "weaker sex" is in reality the direct opposite: more reliable, more promising, and healthier than the male sex.
Embryos can already be created outside the body, and an embryo can be created from a single biological parent if the oocyte and spermatocyte are formed from the very same individual (2023WesevichVG_SeiferDB). The ability of human pluripotent stem cells to differentiate into germ cells has been established (2018YamashiroC_SaitouM). In experiments, it has been proven that mouse embryonic stem cells in culture can transform into oogonia that enter meiosis and recruit neighboring cells to form follicle-like structures, which subsequently develop into blastocysts (2003HubnerK_ScholerHR). The specified studies represent important stepping stones toward human gametogenesis in vitro. It seems the Ancient Egyptian physician guessed at the fundamental reachability of the result, but did not know the necessary steps. A unified body plan of vertebrates and observations of variations in their development could have served as a aid in his reflections.
Thus, a talented writer with medical training living in the Hyksos era was capable of inventing the story of mass circumcision and mentioning its complications. It, like the massacre of the inhabitants of Shechem, is literary fiction. At the same time, the tradition provides clues for compiling the timeline of Jacob's existence and linking it to the context of at least the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt. The medical knowledge recorded in the Book of Genesis already existed within this time interval.
In Shechem, the head of the family does not participate in cattle grazing (Gen. 34:6–7). The sons had grown up, or there were difficulties with walking. As is clear from the primary source, Jacob travels to Hebron with numerous stops (Gen. 35:6, 20–21). Nomadic movements over short distances could have been carried out due to difficulties in movement of the head of the family. In Hebron, Jacob manages the household, but is not directly engaged in cattle breeding (Gen. 37:13). A fitting explanation for this is not the age of 48, but the previously injured hip joint.
Twenty years later, in our opinion in 1609 BCE, food shortages worsen in the region (Gen. 41:53–54). Jacob sends his sons to Egypt for grain while remaining at home himself (Gen. 42:1–2). The disease of the hip joint progresses. By this moment, he had reached about 68 years of age. At least, so it appears to us from what was recounted by the authors. In favor of the indicated speak the words of Jacob mentioning his "gray hairs" (Gen. 42:38). Another two years later, Judah characterizes his father as an "old man" (Gen. 44:20, 45:6).
Obvious out of respect and Jacob's advanced age, the Pharaoh commands: "bring your father" to Egypt in a wagon (Gen. 45:19, 27). Initially, Jacob sets out for "Be'er-Sheba", where he "came" (Gen. 46:1). In a straight line from "Hebron" to "Be'er-Sheba" across the Judean Mountains is approximately 40 km. After this, the sons transport their father to Egypt in a wagon (Gen. 46:5). From the meaning embedded by the writers, it is seen that long marches became beyond the strength of seventy-year-old Jacob. The family was to make a march of about 250 km along the Mediterranean Sea to the northeastern part of the Nile Delta. According to our dating, the resettlement to the "land of Goshen" took place in 1607 BCE (Gen. 46:6, 28).
Injured 33 years earlier, being already an elderly man, Jacob retains the ability to move independently. For the audience with Pharaoh, the patriarch himself arrives with Joseph and departs after the conversation (Gen. 47:7, 10). According to the authors, seventeen years later Jacob's state of health deteriorated (Gen. 47:28–29). He maintains bed rest due to illness (Gen. 47:31, 48:1). We can assume that this was a somatic illness unrelated to the hip joint injury. He had sufficient strength to sit up in bed by himself (Gen. 48:2). He retains clear, proper speech and memory of past as well as recent life events (Gen. 48:3–7, 49:1–33). Visual acuity decreased, likely due to corneal opacity (Gen. 48:8, 10). Movements of both upper extremities were not impaired. The patriarch embraces his grandsons, freely placing both his right and left hands on their heads (Gen. 48:10, 14). Immediately before his death, Jacob was capable of independently drawing "up his feet into the bed" (Gen. 49:33). This indicates that no motor impairments in the lower extremities were observed until his last day. It is clear from the text that Jacob dies of natural causes – not suddenly, nor as a result of an injury sustained 50 years earlier. This figure is arrived at by calculating the time intervals specified by the authors. At the same time, we see that Jacob passed away 1–2 years after moving to Egypt, in 1606–1605 BCE. Correspondingly, the patient lived approximately 71–72 years – an advanced age indeed for a representative of the Middle Bronze Age. It seems that the prototype of the Old Testament hero lived about this long. Conventionally, we also name him Jacob.
Title & Contents / Chapter 1 / Chapter 2 / Chapter 3 / Chapter 4 / Chapter 5 / Chapter 6 / Chapter 7 / Chapter 8 / Chapter 9 / Chapter 10 / Chapter 11 / Chapter 12 / Chapter 13 / Chapter 14 / Chapter 15 / Chapter 16 / Chapter 17 / Chapter 18 / Chapter 19 / Chapter 20 / Chapter 21 / Chapter 22 / Chapter 23 / Chapter 24 / Chapter 25 / References / Notes
Russian-language version:
Титул и оглавление / Глава 1 / Глава 2 / Глава 3 / Глава 4 / Глава 5 / Глава 6 / Глава 7 / Глава 8 / Глава 9 / Глава 10 / Глава 11 / Глава 12 / Глава 13 / Глава 14 / Глава 15 / Глава 16 / Глава 17 / Глава 18 / Глава 19 / Глава 20 / Глава 21 / Глава 22 / Глава 23 / Глава 24 / Глава 25 / Список литературы
Author of the publication
Arkhipov S.V. – Independent Researcher, MD, PhD, Orthopedic Surgeon, Medical Writer, Finland.
Correspondence: Sergey Arkhipov, e-mail: archipovsv @ gmail.com
Publication history
October 23, 2026 - online version of the book is published.
Suggested citation
Arkhipov S.V. Medical Record: The Contribution of a Middle Bronze Age Egyptian Physician to the Book of Genesis. Chapter 19. About the round ligament of the femur. October 23, 2026. https://roundligament.blogspot.com/2026/10/medical-record-chapter-19.html
Note
Keywords
hip joint, hip dislocation, osteoarthritis, ligament of the head of femur, ligamentum teres, ligamentum capitis femoris, Minoan Eruption, Bronze Age, Ancient Medicine, Ancient Egypt, Edwin Smith Papyrus, Biblical Chronology, Genesis, Genesis Protograph, Bereshit
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